Nalanda Seal of Bhaskar Varman

Kamrupi Copper Plate Seal

Kamrupi Lokgeet

    "Kamrupi Lokgeet" is popular form of folk music that expresses thoughts and emotion of the common people of Kamrup.These songs are sung from time immemorial by various people of erstwhile undivided Kamrup district. Beside this various forms of songs linking the day to day activities are also popular like biyar geet (marriage songs), now khelar (boat race) geet, maha-kheda (mosquito drive out) geet, child's play geet, boroshibowa (fishing) geet, nisukoni (lallabye) geet and various forms of Domahi (harvest cultivation festivity) geet. This folk songs reflects every aspect of life of common people of  Kamrup.
Considerably influenced by a class of Vaishnava songs of the highest sophistication and refinement, both literary and musical, the Kamrupi Lokgeet's, although sung to the humble dolara and the dagar (or khanjari) demonstrate great intricacy. It is known for richness of musical modes.1

Sources

1. Dutta Goswami, Praphulla (1974), Folks-Songs of Assam in Sangeet Natak, Issues 31-34, Sangeet Natak Akademi, p.64 Also clothed in a religious garb are a large number of songs current in the Kamrup district which are rather popular and known as Kamrupi Loka-geet. What is remarkable about this songs is not their religion but the richness of their musical modes. Considerably influenced by a class of Vaishnava songs of the highest sophistication and refinement, both literary and musical, the Kamrupi Lokgeets, although sung to the humble dotara and the dagar (or Khanjari) demonstrates great intricacy  

Etymology of Assam

Western Assam was known as Pragjyotisha in Mahabharata and other Sanskrit epics. Kamarupa (Western Assam) and Davaka (Central Assam) in the 1st millennium.
The academic consensus is that the current name is based on the English word Assam by which the British  referred to the tract covered by the Brahmaputra valley and its adjoining areas. The named Assam applied to most of North East India including Brahmaputra and Barak river valleys, hills of Arunachal Pradesh (NEFA), Mizoram (Lushai Hills), Nagaland (Naga Hills) and Meghalaya (Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills.  

As evidenced from Satyendra Nath Sarma's quote that Assam (Eastern Assam) was known as Asama after 15th century till arrival of British. One of many theory states that Assam name derived from Sanskrit word "Asama" meaning unequal as referring to its geology which is equal mix of river valleys and hills, though several other theories also exists. The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as Assam.

Pala Dynasty of Kamrup Kingdom

The Pala dynasty of Kamrup ruled the kingdom from 900 A.D, from its capital at Durjaya (present-day North Gauhati). Like the Pala Dynasty of Bengal, the first ruler in this dynasty was elected, which probably explains the name of this dynasty "Pala". But unlike the Palas of Bengal, who were Buddhists, the Palas of Kamarupa were Hindus. The Hindu orthodoxy drew their lineage from the earlier Varman Dynasty and thus ultimately from Naraka.

The Pala dynasty came to an end when Kamarupa was invaded by the Gaur king Ramapala (c. 1072-1126). Timgyadeva was made the governor of Kamarupa who ruled between 1110 to 1126. Timgyadeva threw off the yoke of the Pala king and ruled independently for some years when he was attacked and replaced by Vaidyadeva under Ramapala's son Kumarapala. Vaidyadeva, who ruled between 1126 and 1140, declared independence within four years of his rule after the death of Kumarapala. Both Timgyadeva and Vaidyadeva issued grants in the style of the Kamarupa kings (three copper plates attached to the seal of the Kamarupa kings by a ring).

Rulers

• Brahma Pala (900-920)
• Ratna Pala (920-960)
• Indra Pala (960-990)
• Go Pala (990-1015)
• Harsha Pala (1015-1035)
• Dharma Pala (1035-1060)
• Jaya Pala (1075-1100)

Varman dynasty (Kamrup Kingdom)

    The Varman Dynasty, ruled the ancient kingdom of Kamarupa from approximately 350 to 650 CE. Established by Pushya Varman in 350 CE, this dynasty marked the beginning of a significant era in the history of eastern India, characterized by political consolidation, cultural development, and interactions with major Indian powers, notably the Gupta Empire. The Varmans traced their lineage to the Naraka of Mithila and his descendants, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta, which lent the dynasty a semi-divine status in regional traditions.

 

Historical Context and Foundation

    Kamarupa, an early state in the Brahmaputra Valley, emerged as a significant political entity under the Varman dynasty. Pushya Varman (r. 350–374 CE) is recognized as the first historical ruler of the dynasty, credited with establishing a centralized monarchical system in the region. The dynasty's early rulers governed from the capital, likely located at Pragjyotishpura (modern Guwahati), which served as a political and cultural hub. The Varmans maintained a complex relationship with the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE), initially as vassals, acknowledging Gupta suzerainty during the height of the empire's power under rulers like Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I.

Capital 

Ruins of Pragjyotishpura

     

    The dynasty, governed the kingdom of Kamarupa from its capital, Pragjyotishpura, which corresponds to modern-day Guwahati in Kamrup. ¹ Flourishing between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, the dynasty played a pivotal role in shaping the political, cultural, and religious landscape of eastern India. Pragjyotishpur, as the administrative and cultural heart of Kamarupa, served as the focal point for the dynasty’s governance, military campaigns, and diplomatic activities, cementing its historical significance in the region.

    Pragjyotishpur, meaning "City of Eastern Light" or "City of Astrology" in Sanskrit, was a thriving urban center and the political nucleus of the Kamarupa kingdom. Situated in the fertile plains of the Brahmaputra Valley, near present-day Guwahati, the city was ideally positioned to control trade routes connecting eastern India with Southeast Asia and China. Its geographical advantages included proximity to the Brahmaputra River, which supported agriculture and commerce, and its location at the foothills of the Shivalik range, which provided natural fortifications.

    The capital served as the administrative hub where the Varman kings issued decrees, managed regional governance, and maintained diplomatic relations. Archaeological evidence, including remains of ancient structures and inscriptions, suggests that Pragjyotishpur was a well-planned city with fortifications, temples, and administrative complexes. The city’s prominence is further corroborated by accounts from the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited Kamarupa during the reign of Bhaskar Varman in the 7th century CE and described Pragjyotishpur as a prosperous center of culture and learning.

 

Political Dynamics

    During the early phase of their rule, the Varmans operated as subordinate allies of the Gupta Empire, contributing to the Gupta's military campaigns and participating in their administrative framework. This relationship is evidenced by inscriptions and historical records, such as the Prayaga Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, which mentions Kamarupa as a frontier kingdom. However, as the Gupta Empire began to decline in the late 5th century due to internal strife and invasions by the Huna, the Varmans gradually asserted greater autonomy.

    A pivotal figure in this transition was Mahendra Varman (r. 470–494 CE), whose reign marked a significant assertion of independence. Mahendra Varman is noted for performing two Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) rituals, a rare and prestigious Vedic ceremony symbolizing imperial authority and sovereignty. These rituals underscored Kamarupa's growing power and its rulers' ambitions to establish themselves as equals to other major Indian dynasties.

Cultural and Religious Contributions

    The Varman dynasty played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and religious landscape of Kamarupa. The rulers were patrons of Vedic traditions, as evidenced by Mahendra Varman's Ashvamedha sacrifices, which reinforced their legitimacy through religious symbolism. The dynasty also fostered the development of early Shaivism and Vaishnavism in the region, with later rulers, such as Bhaskar Varman, claiming descent from the god Vishnu, a practice common among Indian dynasties to enhance their divine legitimacy.

    The Varmans also contributed to the spread of Sanskrit culture and Brahmanical traditions in northeastern India. The region became a center for learning and cultural exchange, with Pragjyotishpura emerging as a hub for scholars and religious practitioners. Archaeological evidence, such as inscriptions and temple remains, suggests the dynasty's investment in religious architecture and patronage of Brahmin communities.

Diplomatic Engagements

    The most prominent ruler of the Varman dynasty was Bhaskar Varman (r. c. 600–650 CE), whose reign represented the zenith of Kamarupa's political and cultural influence. Bhaskar Varman is celebrated for his diplomatic acumen and his alliance with Harsha Vardhana (r. 606–647 CE), the powerful ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty in northern India. Bhaskar Varman accompanied Harsha during significant religious processions from Pataliputra (modern Patna) to Kannauj, events that highlighted the close ties between Kamarupa and the northern Indian political sphere. These processions, described in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited Kamarupa during Bhaskar Varman's reign, underscored the kingdom's integration into the broader Indian cultural and religious networks.

    Bhaskar Varman's reign was also marked by his patronage of Buddhism, as Hieun Tsang noted the presence of Buddhist monasteries in Kamarupa. His diplomatic relations with Harsha and his role in regional politics elevated Kamarupa's status, making it a key player in the geopolitics of early medieval India.

Politics

Prayag Pillar Inscription

    The most illustrious of this dynasty was the last, Bhaskar Varman, He accompanied King Harshavardhana to religious processions from Pataliputra to Kannauj.The alliance between king Harsha of Thanesar and Bhaskar Varman lead to spread of political influence of later to entire eastern India. Varman kings had diplomatic relations with China.The Varman Dynasty played a significant role in the political and cultural landscape of eastern India during the early medieval period. The dynasty, known for its contributions to regional governance and cultural patronage, reached its zenith under the rule of its most celebrated monarch, Bhaskar Varman, who reigned in the 7th century CE. His reign marked a high point in the dynasty’s history, characterized by strategic alliances, diplomatic engagements, and the expansion of political influence across eastern India.

 

     Under the Varman rulers, Pragjyotishpur became a symbol of Kamarupa’s sovereignty and cultural vibrancy. The dynasty’s most notable monarch, Bhaskar Varman (r. early 7th century CE), elevated the city’s status through his political and diplomatic achievements. His reign saw Pragjyotishpur serve as the base for forging a significant alliance with King Harshavardhana of Thanesar and Kannauj, a partnership that extended Kamarupa’s influence across eastern India. Bhaskar Varman’s participation in religious processions with Harsha, as documented by Xuanzang, likely involved representatives from Pragjyotishpur, showcasing the city’s role in regional diplomacy.

    Pragjyotishpur was also a center of cultural and religious activity. The Varman kings were patrons of Hinduism and Buddhism, and the capital housed temples and monasteries that attracted scholars and pilgrims. The city’s cultural significance is further evidenced by its association with the worship of Kamakhya, a major deity in the region, whose temple near Pragjyotishpur remains a key religious site to this day.

 

Bhaskar Varman’s Reign

    Bhaskar Varman, the last prominent ruler of the Varman Dynasty, is regarded as one of the most illustrious figures in the history of ancient Kamrup. Ascending to the throne of the Kamarupa kingdom , he demonstrated exceptional political acumen and diplomatic foresight. His reign is particularly noted for his alliance with King Harshavardhana (Harsha), the powerful ruler of Thanesar and Kannauj, who dominated much of northern India during the same period. This alliance significantly enhanced Bhaskar Varman’s political stature and extended Kamarupa’s influence across eastern India.

Alliance with Harshavardhana

    One of the defining moments of Bhaskar Varman’s reign was his participation in religious and diplomatic engagements alongside King Harshavardhana. Historical records, including accounts by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), indicate that Bhaskar Varman accompanied Harsha during grand religious processions between Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar) and Kannauj (in present-day Uttar Pradesh). These processions, likely associated with Buddhist assemblies, underscored the cultural and religious ties between the two rulers. The alliance between Bhaskar Varman and Harsha was not merely ceremonial but also strategically significant. It facilitated the consolidation of Kamarupa’s political influence, enabling Bhaskar Varman to assert authority over much of eastern India, including parts of modern-day Assam, Bengal, and neighboring regions.

Diplomatic Relations with China

    The Varman Dynasty, under Bhaskar Varman, established notable diplomatic relations with the Tang Dynasty of China, reflecting Kamarupa’s prominence in regional geopolitics. Bhaskar Varman is recorded to have sent emissaries to the Tang court, fostering cultural and diplomatic exchanges. These interactions are documented in Chinese historical records, which highlight Kamarupa’s role as a significant power in eastern India. The diplomatic outreach to China also underscores Bhaskar Varman’s efforts to position Kamarupa as a key player in the broader Asian political and cultural sphere, particularly in the context of Buddhist networks that connected India, China, and Southeast Asia during this period.   

Cultural environment

    People were simple and honest with small stature and dark yellow complexion who speak a language that was a little different from Mid-India. Their nature was very impetuous and wild with retentive memories. People were sincere in study who adore and sacrificed to the Devas, and they didn't worship Buddha and no monument related to Buddha was built. Some Buddha disciples said their prayers secretly. There was hundreds of deva temples, and different sects. Bhaskar Varman, role model for the people, was fond of learning. Intellectuals from distant places visited his country. Bhaskar Varman wasn't a Buddhist but he respected sramaņas of learning.²

 

Rulers

1. 350-374 Pushya Varman
   
2. 374-398 Samudra Varman
   
3. 398-422 Bala Varman
4. 422-446 Kalyana Varman
5. 446-470 Ganapati Varman alias Ganendra Varman
6. 470-494 Mahendra Varman alias Surendra Varman
7. 494-518 Narayana Varman
   
8. 518-542 Bhuti Varman alias Mahabhuti Varman
9. 542-566 Chandramukha Varman
   
10. 566-590 Sthita Varman
    
11. 590-595 Susthita Varman
    
12. 595-600 Supratisthita Varman
    
13. 600-650 Bhaskar Varman
    
14. 650-655 Avanti Varman  

Decline and Succession

    The Varman dynasty's rule came to an end around 650 CE, following Bhaskar Varman's death. The reasons for the dynasty's decline remain unclear, but it is likely that internal succession disputes and external pressures contributed to its fall. The Varman dynasty was succeeded by the Salastambha dynasty, which continued to govern Kamarupa but lacked the same level of prominence and influence.

Legacy

    The Varman dynasty left an enduring legacy in the history of Assam and eastern India. Their rule laid the foundation for the political and cultural development of Kamarupa, establishing it as a significant regional power. The dynasty's patronage of Vedic and Hindu traditions, as well as their diplomatic engagements with major Indian powers, contributed to the integration of Kamarupa into the broader Indian cultural and political framework. The connection to Naraka and the divine claims of rulers like Bhaskar Varman continue to resonate in the cultural memory of the region.

    Bhaskar Varman’s reign marked the culmination of the Varman Dynasty’s contributions to the cultural and political development of ancient Kamrup. His alliance with Harshavardhana and diplomatic engagements with China elevated Kamarupa’s status, fostering a period of prosperity and influence. The dynasty’s patronage of Buddhism, as evidenced by Xuanzang’s accounts of Bhaskar Varman’s participation in religious events, also highlights its role in promoting religious and intellectual traditions. Although the Varman Dynasty declined after Bhaskar Varman’s death, his legacy endured in the historical memory of Kamrup as a ruler who expanded its influence and forged connections with major powers of the time.

See also

• Prayag Stone Pillar 
• Old Kamrupi language
• Kamrupi script
• Kamrupi literature
• Kamrup
• Kamrupi culture

Sources

1.  Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 37 (2005), Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti, p. 187 Pusyavarman became king of Kämarüpa with his seat of administration at Prägjyotisapura
2. Tsang, Hieun, Translated by Beal, Samual (1906),  Si-yu-ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, pp. 195-199  "KIA-MO-LU-PO  (Kâmarûpa).
   The country of Kâmarûpa is about 10,000 li in circuit. The capital town is about 30  li. The land lies low, but is rich, and is regularly cultivated. They cultivate the Panasa fruit and the Na-lo-ki-lo  (Nârîkêla) fruit. These trees, though numerous, are nevertheless much valued and esteemed. Water led from the river or from banked-up lakes (reservoirs) flows round the towns. The climate is soft and  temperate. The manners of the people simple and honest. The men are of small stature, and their complexion a dark yellow.  Their language differs a little from that of Mid-India. Their nature is very impetuous and wild;  their memories are retentive, and they are earnest in study. They adore and sacrifice to the Dêvas, and have no faith in Buddha ; hence  from the time when  Buddha appeared in the world even down to the present time there never as yet has been  built one sanghârâma as a place for the priests  to  assemble. Such disciples as there are of a pure faith,  say their prayers (repeat  the name of  Buddha) secretly, and that is all. There are as many as 100 Dêva temples, and different sectaries to the number of several myriads. The present king belongs to the old line (tso  yari) of Nârâyana-dêva. He is of the Brâhman caste. His name is Bhâskara- varman, his title Kumara (Keu-mo-lo). From the time that this family seized the  land and assumed the government till the present king, there have elapsed a thousand successions (generations).  The king is fond of learning, and the people are so likewise in imitation of him. Men of high talent from distant regions aspiring after office (?) visit his dominions as strangers. Though he has no faith in Buddha, yet he much respects Sramanas of learning. When he first  heard that a Sramana from China had come to Magadha to the Nâlanda sanghâ- râma from such  a  distance,  to  study with diligence the profound law of Buddha,  he  sent  a  message  of  invitation by those who reported it as often as three  times, but yet the  Sramana  (i.e., Hiuen  Tsiang) had not obeyed it. Then Silabhadra (Shi-lo-po-t'o-lo), master of sâstras,  said, " You desire to show your gratitude  to  Buddha ;  then  you should  propagate  the  true  law ;  this is your duty. You need not fear the long journey. Kumâra-râja's family respect the teaching of  the  heretics, and now he invites a Sramana to visit him.  This is good indeed !  We judge from this that he is changing his principles, and desires to acquire merit (or, from merit  acquired) to benefit others. You formerly conceived a great heart, and made a vow with yourself to travel alone through different lands regardless of life, to seek for the law for the good of the world.  Forgetful of your own country,  you should be ready to meet death ; indifferent to renown or failure, you should  labour to open the door for the spread of the holy doctrine, to lead onwards the crowds who are deceived by false teaching, to consider others first, yourself afterwards ; forgetful of renown, to think only of religion (enlarge the law)."
       On  this,  with no further excuses, he hastened in company with the messengers to present  himself to the king. Kumâra-râja said,  " Although I am without talents myself, I have always been fond of men of conspicuous learning. Hearing, then, of your fame and distinction,  I ventured to ask you here to visit me."
       He replied,  " I have only moderate wisdom, and I am confused to think that you should  have heard of my poor reputation."
       Kumâra-râja said,  " Well, indeed ! from regard for the law and love of learning to regard  oneself as of no account, and to travel abroad regardless of so great dangers, to wander through  strange countries !  This is the result of the transforming power of the king's government, and  the exceeding learning, as is reported, of the country. Now, through the kingdoms of India there  are many persons who sing about the victories of the Tsin king of the Mahâchîna country. I have  long heard of this. And is it true that this is your honourable birthplace ? "
       He said,  " It is so. These songs celebrate the virtues of my sovereign."
       He replied, "  I could not think that your worthy self was of this country. I have ever had an  esteem for its manners and laws. Long have I looked towards the east, but the intervening  mountains and rivers have prevented me from personally visiting it"
       In answer I said, " My great sovereign's holy qualities are far renowned, and the transforming  power of his virtue reaches to remote districts. People from strange countries pay respect at  the  door of  his palace, and call themselves his servants."
       Kumâra-râja  said, "  If his dominion is so great (covering thus his subjects), my heart strongly desires to bear my tribute to his court. But now Sîlâditya-râja is in the country of Kajûghira (Kie-chu-hoh-khi-lo), about to distribute large alms and to plant deeply the root of merit and wisdom. The Sramans and Brahmans of the five Indies, renowned for their learning, must needs come together. He has now sent for me. I pray you go with me!"
       On this they went together.
       On  the east this country is bounded by a line of hills, so that there is no great city (capital)  to  the kingdom.Their frontiers, therefore, are contiguous to the barbarians of the south-west (of  China). These tribes are, in fact, akin to those of the Man people in their customs. On inquiry I ascertained that after a two months' journey we reach the south-western frontiers of the province of Sz'chuen (Shuh). But the mountains and rivers present obstacles, and the pestilential  air, the poisonous vapours, the fatal snakes, the destructive vegetation, all these causes of death prevail.
       On the south-east of  this country herds of wild elephants roam about in numbers;therefore, in this district they use them principally in war. Going from this 1200 or 1300 li to the south, we come to the country of San-mo-ta-cha (Samatata). "
3. Acharyya, N. N. (Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti) (1985), Studies On The Graeco - Roman And Chinese Sources Of The History Of Ancient Assam in "Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 28", p. 112 "At the time of Hiuan-tsang's visit King Bhaskaravarman, was "a descendant of the God Narayana" ; he was "of the caste of the Brahman, as," and had the title of " Kumara." "Since the possession of the kingdom by his family up to his time, the succession of princes covers a space of a thousand generations" (Mem.II,77.) The evidence of his contemporary Bana (Harsacarita, chap. VII) confirms almost all these details. Finally we possess since a few years ago an inscription of King Bhaskaravarman (Nidhanpur plates,Ep.Ind.,XII,65), which takes back the genealogy up to King Bhagadatta, the famous adversary of the by a long list of ancestors. However, when he had business with others than Indians, the same prince boasted of another origin altogether. When the envoy of the T'ang dynasty, Li Yi-piao, paid him a visit during the course of his mission (643-646) the king in a private conversation told him: "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (Han-ti) flying through the air" (She-kia fang tche, ed. Tok. XXXV, 1, 94b, col. ult. As though he would show sympathy for China, he asked the envoy to get him a portrait of Lao-tseu and a Sanskrit translation of the Tao-to-king."

 

Bibliography

• Chanakya (321 BCE), Arthashastra
  
• Kalidasa (4th century CE), Raghuvaṃśam
  
• Banabhatta (620 - 640 CE), Harshacharita
• Tsang, Hieun, Translated by Beal, Samual (1906),  Si-yu-ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World
• Barua, Kanak Lal (1933), Early History of Kamarupa
  
• Acharyya, N. N. (Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti) (1985), Studies On The Graeco - Roman And Chinese Sources Of The History Of Ancient Assam in "Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 28

Kamrup Kingdom

Kamrup Kingdom, also called Pragjyotisha, was the first historical kingdom in Assam that existed between 350 and 1140 CE i.e for almost 800 years. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-day Guwahati in Kamrup and Tezpur in Central Assam it covered the entire Brahmaputra river valley and, at times, North Bengal and parts of Bangladesh.

Though the historical kingdom disappeared by 12th century to be replaced by smaller political entities, the notion of Kamarupa persisted and ancient and medieval chroniclers continued to call this region by this name. Coins of Alauddin Hussain Shah, who invaded the Kamata Kingdom in the late 15th century, called the region Kamru or Kamrud.

Sources

The region is mentioned as Pragjyotisha in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The periplus of the Eritherian Sea (1st century) and Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century) calls the region Kirrhadia after the Kirata population. The first epigraphic mention of Kamarupa comes from the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta from the 4th century, which marks the beginning of the historical period. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited the kingdom in the 7th century, then ruled by Bhaskar Varman. Inscriptions left by the rulers of Kamarupa, including Bhaskar Varman, at various places in Assam and present-day Bangladesh are important sources of information.

Boundaries

According to the 10th century Kalika Purana and the 7th century Xuanzang, the western boundary was the historical Karatoya river. The eastern border is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in Kalika Purana) near present-day Sadiya in the eastern most corner of Assam. The southern boundary was near the border between the Dhaka and Mymensingh districts in Bangladesh. Thus it spanned the entire Brahmaputra valley and at various times included present-day Bhutan and parts of Bangladesh. This is supported by the various epigraphic records found scattered over these regions.

State

The extent of state structures can be culled from the numerous copper plate grants left behind by the Kamarupa kings as well as accounts left by travelers such as those from Xuanzang.

Kings and courts: The king was considered to be of divine origin. Succession was primogeniture, but two major breaks resulted in different dynasties. In the second, the high officials of the state elected a king, Brahmapala, after the previous king died without leaving an heir. The royal court consisted of a Rajaguru, poets, learned men and physicians. Different epigraphic records mention different officials of the palace: Mahavaradhipati, Mahapratihara, Mahallakapraudhika, etc.
Council of Ministers: The king was advised by a council of ministers (Mantriparisada), and Xuanzang mentions a meeting Bhaskar Varman had with his ministers. According to the Kamauli grant, these positions were filled by Brahmanas and were hereditary. State functions were specialized and there were different groups of officers looking after different departments.
Revenue: Land revenue (kara) was collected by special tax-collectors from cultivators. Cultivators who had no proprietary rights on the lands they tilled paid uparikara. Duties (sulka) were collected by toll collectors (kaivarta) from merchants who plied keeled boats. The state maintained a monopoly on copper mines (kamalakara). The state maintained its stores and treasury via officials: Bhandagaradhikrita and Koshthagarika.
Grants: The king occasionally gave Brahmanas grants (brahmadeya), which consisted generally of villages, water resources, wastelands etc (agraharas). Such grants conferred on the donee the right to collect revenue and the right to be free of any regular tax himself and immunity from other harassments. Sometimes, the Brahmanas were relocated from North India, with a view to establish varnashramdharma. Nevertheless, the existence of donees indicate the existence of a feudal class. Grants made to temples and religious institutions were called dharmottara and devottara respectively.
Land survey: The land was surveyed and classified. Arable lands (kshetra) were held individually or by families, whereas wastelands (khila) and forests were held collectively. There were lands called bhucchidranyaya that were left unsurveyed by the state on which no tax was levied.
Administration: The entire kingdom was divided into a hierarchy of administrative divisions. From the highest to the lowest, they were bhukti, mandala, vishaya, pura (towns) and agrahara (collection of villages).
These units were administered by officials such as nyayakaranika, vyavaharika, kayastha etc., led by the adhikara. They dispensed judicial duties too, though the ultimate authority lay with the king. Law enforcement and punishments were made by officers called dandika, (magistrate) and dandapashika (one who executed the orders of a dandika).

Political Background

Kamarupa, first mentioned on Samudra Gupta's Allahabad rock pillar as a frontier kingdom, began as a subordinate but sovereign ally of the Gupta empire around present-day Guwahati in the 4th century. It finds mention along with Davaka, a kingdom to the east of Kamarupa in the Kapili river valley in present-day Nagaon district, but which is never mentioned again as an independent political entity in later historical records. Kamarupa, which was probably one among many such state structures, grew territorially to encompass the entire Brahmaputra valley and beyond. The kingdom was ruled by three major dynasties, all of which drew their lineage from the legendary king Naraka, who is said to have established his line by defeating the aboriginal king Ghatakasura of the Danava Dyanasty. 

Varman dynasty (350-650)

Pushya Varman (350-374) established the Varman dynasty, by fighting many enemies from within and without his kingdom; but his son Samudra Varman (374-398), named after Samudra Gupta, was accepted as an overlord by many local rulers. Nevertheless, subsequent kings continued their attempts to stabilize and expand the kingdom. Narayana Varman (494-518) and his son Bhuti Varman (518-542) offered the ashwamedha (horse sacrifice); and as the Nidhanpur inscription of Bhaskar Varman avers, these expansions included the region of Chandrapuri visaya, identified with present-day Sylhet division. Thus, the small but powerful kingdom that Pushya Varman established grew in fits and starts over many generations of kings and expanded to include adjoining possibly smaller kingdoms and parts of Bangladesh.

After the initial expansion till the beginning of Bhuti Varman's reign, the kingdom came under attack from Yashodharman (525-535) of Malwa, the first major assault from the west. Though it is unclear what the effect of this invasion was on the kingdom; that Bhuti Varman's grandson, Sthita Varman (566-590), enjoyed victories over the Gauda of Karnasuvarna and performed two aswamedha ceremonies suggests that the Kamarupa kingdom had recovered nearly in full. His son, Susthita Varman (590-600) came under the attack of Mahasenagupta of East Malwa. These back and forth invasions were a result of a system of alliances that pitted the Kamarupa kings (allied to the Maukharis) against the Gaur kings (allied with the East Malwa kings). Susthita Varman died as the Gaur invasion was on, and his two sons, Suprathisthita Varman and Bhaskar Varman fought against an elephant force and were captured and taken to Gaur. They were able to regain their kingdom due probably to a promise of allegiance. Suprathisthita Varman's regin is given as 595-600, a very short period, at the end of which he died without an heir.
Supratisthita Varman was succeeded by his brother, Bhaskar Varman (600-650), the most illustrious of the Varman kings who succeeded in turning his kingdom and invading the very kingdom that had taken him captive. Bhaskar Varman had become strong enough to offer his alliance with Harsh Vardhana just as the Thanesar king ascended the throne in 606 after the murder of his brother, the previous king, by Shashanka of Gaur. Harsha Vardhana finally took control over the kingless Maukhari kingdom and moved his capital to Kanauj. The alliance between Harsha Vardhana and Bhaskar Varman squeezed Shashanka from either side and reduced his kingdom, though it is unclear whether this alliance resulted in his complete defeat. Nevertheless, Bhaskar Varman did issue the Nidhanpur copper-plate inscription from his victory camp in the Gaur capital Karnasuvrna (present-day Murshidabad, West Bengal) to replace a grant issued earlier by Bhuti Varman for a settlement in the Sylhet region of present-day Bangladesh.
In about 643, the Xuanzang visited Bhaskar Varman's court. Xuangzang confirms that the western border of the Kamarupa kingdom was the Karatoya river. At the end of this visit, Bhaskar Varman accompanied Xuanzang to Kanauj, and participated in a religious assembly and a festival at Prayaga (Allahabad) with Harsha Vardhana, spending more than a year away from his own kingdom. It seems Bhaskar Varman maintained relations with China. He recounted to Xuanzang a Chinese song about the Jin Dynasty which became very popular in his kingdom. After the death of Harsha, he helped a mission from China led by Wang Hiuen-ts'oe according to a Chinese account. Bhaskar Varman, also called Kumar, or Shri Kumar, was a bachelor king and died without an heir.

Mlechchha dynasty (655-900CE)

After Bhaskar Varman's death without an heir, the kingdom fall into the hands of Salasthambha (655-670), an erstwhile local governor and a member of an aboriginal group called Mlechchha (or Mech), after a period of civil and political strife. Though this dynasty too claims its lineage from the Naraka Dynasty, it had no dynastic relationship with the previous Varman Dynasty. The capital of this dynasty was Haruppeshvara, now identified with modern Dah Parbatiya near Tezpur. The kingdom took on feudal characteristics with political power shared between the king and second and third tier rulers called mahasamanta and samanta who enjoyed considerable autonomy. The last ruler in this line was Tyāga Singha (890-900). 

Pala dynasty (900-1140) 

After the death of Tyāgasimha without an heir, a member of the Bhauma family, Brahmapala (900-920)), was elected as king by the ruling chieftains, just as Gopala of the Pala dynasty of Bengal was elected. The original capital of this dynasty was Hadapeshvara, and was shifted to Durjaya built by Ratnapala, near modern Guwahati. The greatest of the Pala kings, Dharmapala had his capital at Kamarupanagara, now identified with North Guwahati. The last Pala king was Jayapala (1075-1100). Around this time, Kamarupa was attacked and the western portion was conquered by the Pala king of Gaur Ramapala.

Non-dynastic independent Kings

The Gaur king could not hold Kamarupa for long, and Timgyadeva (1110-1126) ruled Kamarupa independently for sometime. A minister of the Gaur king Kumarapala (the son of Ramapala) began an expedition against Timgyadeva and installed himself as a ruler at Hamshkonchi in the Kamrup region. Though he maintained friendly relationships with Kumarapala, he called styled himself after the Kamarupa kings issuing grants under the elephant seal of erstwhile Kamarupa kings and assuming the title of Maharajadhiraja. The period saw a waning of the Kamarupa kingdom, and in 1205 the Afghan Muhammad i Bakhtiyar passed through Kamarupa against Tibet which ended in a disaster. Mughisuddin Yuzbak of the Mameluk rulers of Bengal attacked and defeated an unknown ruler of Kamarupa in 1257. But Yuzbak could not hold on to the capital as he was weakened by the Monsoon rains that led to his defeat and death by the local population.

 

Ancient caves discovered at Gauhati

A rock cut cave with an array of historical findings has been discovered in the Kalipur, Umachal Area of Gauhati. The cave is in it’s interior measuring 6.26x5.02 metres. 

The cave was discovered by some children who were playing near by the area. The cave was covered by thick jungle. After cleaning bushes, the century old cave came to the sight of people.

Visiting the cave site, Director of the Archaeology Department informed TSI – “The rock inscription dated back to 400-500 AD. It is thought that the inscription of the cave was done during the tenure of King Mahendra Varman (470 - 494 A.D) of Kamarupa Kingdom (3 - 12 A.D). Assam Archaeology Department will take necessary action to protect this cave.

An official of State Archaeology Department said that the cave was the temple of Balabhadra swami. According to her two pieces of a broken stone bowl measuring 16.5 cm in diameter has been found inside the cave. Official also informed that a floral carving measuring 76x73x16 cm has also been seen drawn on the rock surface. 

The Kalipur and Umachal area of greater Gauhati was the epicenter of Tantric Practices from very ancient time. Several historical monuments have been discovered in this locality.

Old Kamrupi language

"The Old Kamrupi language", also known as "Kamrupi Apabhramasa," represents an early Indo-Aryan linguistic variant that was spoken in the classical Kamarupa region, encompassing present-day Western Assam and North Bengal.¹ This linguistic entity, while currently existing as dialects within the Assamese and Bengali languages,² traces its origin to the separation from Magadhi Prakrita, alongside other middle Indo-Aryan languages such as Radhi, Vanga, and Varendari.² This linguistic evolution occurred north of the Ganges River and ultimately gave rise to the contemporary Assamese language.^{3 4}

The Sporadic Apabhramsa, which characterizes the Kamrupi language, is a composite linguistic form comprising elements from Sanskrit, Prakrit, and colloquial dialects prevalent in the Kamrup region.⁵ The linguistic fusion of these diverse influences has contributed to the unique character of Kamrupi Apabhramasa, marking it as an essential historical precursor to the present-day Assamese language. 

 

 

Characteristics

Nalanda Seal of Bhaskar Varman

                                                                
    The replacement of ṣ and s by ś is one of the main characteristics of the Magadha Prakrita, as warranted by Vararuci's rule, ṣasau śah. But in the Kamarupa inscriptions, we find the reverse of it, i.e the replacement of ś by s as in the word suhańkara, substituted for the Sanskrit śubhańkara, as seen in line 32 of the Subhankarpataka grant of Kamrupi king Dharmapala.

    Though the Kamrup epigraphs were written in classical Sanskrit in kavya style of a high degree, they abound in corrupt and unchaste forms.

• Loss of repha and reduplication of the remaining concerned consonants.
• Shortening of vowels.
• Lengthening of vowels.
• Substitution of one vowel for another.
• Avoidance and irregularity of sandhis.
• Loss of initial vowel.
• Substitution of Y by i.
• Total loss of medial Y.
• Reduplication of consonants immediately followed by r.
• Absence of duplication where it is otherwise necessary.
• Varieties of assimilation.
• Wrong analogy.
• Varied substitution for m and final m.
• Substitution of h by gh and susbstitution of bh by h.
• Indiscriminate substitution of one sibilant for another.
• Irregularity of declension in case of stems ending in consonants.
• Absence of visarga even where it is invariably necessary.

Script

Nidhanpur Inscription of Bhaskar Varman

 

 The Kamrupi script was a writing system employed for the ancient Kamrupi language, which persisted until the mid-nineteenth century. This linguistic and scriptural heritage was primarily associated with the historical region of Kamrup, situated in present-day Assam, India. The Kamrupi script played a pivotal role in documenting and preserving the linguistic nuances of the Kamrupi language, which was once prevalent in the region.

Dating back to an era preceding the nineteenth century, the Kamrupi script is recognized for its unique set of characters and symbols tailored to represent the phonetic intricacies of the Kamrupi language. This script served as a medium for literary and cultural expression, encompassing a diverse range of texts including religious manuscripts, historical chronicles, and literary compositions.

As the primary means of written communication for the Kamrupi-speaking populace, the script contributed significantly to the intellectual and cultural legacy of the region. Unfortunately, with the passage of time and the advent of colonial influences, the Kamrupi language and its associated script underwent a gradual decline. By the mid-nineteenth century, the use of the Kamrupi script had diminished, and the language itself experienced a decline in prevalence, giving way to other linguistic influences and scripts.

Despite its historical significance, the Kamrupi script and language are no longer actively used in contemporary contexts. However, scholarly endeavors and cultural preservation initiatives seek to document and revive aspects of this linguistic and scriptural heritage, shedding light on a bygone era in the cultural tapestry of the Kamrup region.
 

Works

The specimen of the old Kamrupi language are found in different inscriptions scattered around eastern and northern India, such as Bhaskar Varman's inscriptions. Daka, a native of Lehidangara village of Barpeta composed an authoritative work labelled Dakabhanita in 8th century A.D.^6 7 Charyapada carry samples of Kamrupi, besides other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages.⁸

Dialect continuum

During British India at some point Kamrup was divided into two big districts for administrative grounds, one added to Assam and other to Bengal. Slowly after this division, the very Kamrupi acquires dialect footing of Assamese and Bengali, as Kamrupi dialect and North Bengali. Kamrupi today is an endangered language and it will probably go to "dead" state like Latin and Sanskrit. In recent times, the South Kamrupi dialect has been used in the works of the writer Indira Goswami with dramatic effects. Poet and nationalist, Ambikagiri Raichoudhury uses Kamrupi in his works to inordinate extent.²⁵

Similarity with the Assamese language

 Kamrupi today denotes a dialect of Assamese Language spoken in the undivided Kamrup district (Kamrup region) of Assam, India. The four main dialects that form this group are West Kamrupi (Barpeta), Central Kamrupi (Nalbari) and South Kamrupi (Palashbari).¹⁶ These dialects are spoken in the present districts of Kamrup (rural & metro), Nalbari, Barpeta in Assam.¹⁶ The name is derived from region (Kamrup) it constitutes.

Similarity with the Bengali language

The modern Bengali scholars like Suniti Kumar Chatterjee and Sukumar Sen have named the dialect of Bengali spoken in North Bengal as Kamrupi.⁹ The Assamese Kamrupi and the Bengali Kamrupi are very similar according to Suniti Kumar Chatterjee. The division possibly occurred due to political reasons.¹⁰ Today the two dialects form a dialect continuum.¹⁰

Apabhramsa

Charyapada

Kamarupa was the most powerful and formidable kingdom in the region which provided the political and cultural influence for the development of the Kamrupi apabhramsa. Hiuen-Tsiang's mention that the language spoken in Kamarupa was a 'little different' from the one spoken in mid-India is provided as evidence that this apabhramsa existed as early as the 7th century.

Archaic forms found in epigraphic records from the Kamarupa give evidence of this apabhramsa, of which there are numerous examples. The Buddhist Charyapadas from the 8th to 12th century are claimed by different languages: Assamese, Bengali, Oriya and Maithili languages. But the geographical region of its composition was the Kamarupa pitha and many of the composers were Kamrupi siddhas. Therefore the language in the Charyapadas is the best example of this apabhramsa. Haraprasad Shastri, who discovered these poems in Nepal, termed the language sandhya bhasha (twilight language) and this is nothing but the Kamrupi apabhramsa.

Endangered language

Kamrupi today is an endangered language. The language is defined by uniquely identifiable Kamrupi grammar where Sanskritize pronunciation is used to compose present perfect form. This grammar is heavily used by Kamrupi speakers all over greater Kamrup now including in Assam and West Bengal. At least 95% of the "sloka" composed in yesteryear scriptures use this unique Kamrupi grammar.
Kamrupi came to endangered language during British India when for administrative reasons Kamrup was divided into two big districts one added to Bengal and the other to Assam. Thus, Kamrupi since then has seldomly written but only spoken and do not have a state language status in India.

Geographical vicinity

Assamese, or more precisely, the precursor to the contemporary Assamese language, Old Kamrupi language, originated in the historical region of Kamrup or Western Assam.¹¹ The linguistic evolution of Assamese is intricately tied to the ancient Kamrupi dialect, which laid the foundation for the language. Scholars such as Kaliram Medhi and Golockchandra Goswami have noted that in the early stages of the development of Assamese, the Western Assamese dialect held prominence and influence, extending its linguistic sway across the entire region.^12 13

The transition from the Kamrupi dialect to what is now recognized as Assamese is a process that unfolded over centuries. According to observations by Upendranath Goswami, Kamrupi language gradually entered Kamarupa or Western Assam, where it underwent linguistic transformations and was eventually characterized as Assamese. This linguistic shift is substantiated by historical accounts, including the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler Hiuen Tsang, who visited the Kingdom of Kamarupa in the first half of the seventh century A.D. during the reign of Bhaskar Varman.¹¹

Hiuen Tsang's records provide valuable insights into the linguistic landscape of the region during that period, indicating the emergence of a distinct speech that would later be identified as Kamrupi language. The assimilation of various linguistic elements, coupled with cultural interactions, contributed to the development of Kamrupi as a distinct language within the broader linguistic context of the Indian subcontinent.

The recognition of Kamrupi as a distinct language in the historical Kingdom of Kamarupa marks a crucial milestone in the linguistic history of the region. The observations of early scholars and the historical accounts of travelers collectively attest to the complex and gradual process through which Kamrupi language emerged from its precursor, the old Kamrupi language, solidifying its identity as a language with a rich cultural and historical heritage in Western Assam.

  See also

• Kamrupi language
• Kamrupi script 
• Kamrup
• Kamrupi culture

Sources

1. Goswami, Upendranath (1970),  A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese, Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Assam. p. 4 "Assam from ancient times, was known as Kamarupa till the end of the Koch rule (17th century) and ancient Kamarupa comprised the whole of North Bengal including Cooch-Behar, and the Rangpur and Jalpaiguri districts of Bengal. Its permanent western boundary is said to have been the river Karatoya in North Bengal according to the Kalika Purana and Yoginitantra, both devoted to geographical accounts of ancient Kamarupa. So the Aryan language spoken first in Assam was the Kamrupi language spoken in Rangpur, Cooch-Behar, Goalpara, Kamrup district and some parts of Nowgong and Darrang districts. As also put by K.L. Barua "the Kamrupi dialect was originally a variety of eastern Maithili and it was no doubt the spoken Aryan language throughout the kingdom which then included the whole of the Assam Valley and the whole of Northern Bengal with the addition of the Purnea district of Bihar”. It is in this Kamrupi language that the early Assamese literature was mainly written. Up to the seventeenth century as the centre of art, literature and culture were confined within western Assam and the poets and the writers hailed from this part, the language of this part also acquired prestige. The earliest Assamese writer is Hema Saraswati, the author of a small poem, Prahrada Caritra, who composed his verses under his patron, King Durlabhnarayana of Kamatapur who is said to have ruled in the latter part of the 13th century. Rudra Kandali translated Drone Parva under the patronage of King Tamradhvaja of Rangpur. The most considerable poet of the pre-vaisnavite period is Madhava Kandali, who belonged to the present district of Nowgong and rendered the entire Ramayana into Assamese verse under the patronage of king Mahamanikya, a Kachari King of Jayantapura. The golden age in Assamese literature opened with the reign of Naranarayana, the Koch King. He gathered round him at his court at Cooch-Behar a galaxy of learned man. Sankaradeva real founder of Assamese literature and his favourite disciple Madhavadeva worked under his patronage. The other-best known poets and writers of this vaisnavite period namely Rama Sarasvati, Ananta Kandali, Sridhar Kandali, Sarvabhauma Bhattacharyya, Dvija Kalapachandra and Bhattadeva, the founder of the Assamese prose, all hailed from the present district of Kamarupa. During Naranaryana's reign "the Koch power reached its zenith. His kingdom included practically the whole of Kamarupa of the kings of Brahmapala's dynasty with the exception of the eastern portion known as Saumara which formed the Ahom kingdom. Towards the west the kingdom appears to have extended beyond the Karatoya, for according to Abul Fasal, the author of the Akbarnamah, the western boundary of the Koch kingdom was Tirhut. On the south-west the kingdom included the Rangpur district and part of Mymensingh to the east of the river Brahmaputra which then flowed through that district," The Kamrupi language lost its prestige due to reasons mentioned below and has now become a dialect which has been termed as Kamrupi dialect as spoken in the present district of Kamrup."
2. Barma, Sukhabilasa (2004), Bhawaiya, ethnomusicological study, Global Vision Publishing House, "Based on the materials of the Linguistic Survey of India, Suniti Kumar Chattopadhyay has divided Eastern Magadhi Prakrita and Apabhramsa into four dialect groups (1) Radha-the language of West Bengal and Orissa (2) Varendra-dialect of North Central Bengal (3) Kamrupi-dialect of Northern Bengal and Assam and (4) Vanga-dialect of East Bengal." 
3. Birendranatha Datta (1999), Folkloric Foragings in India's North-East, p.134 "Scholars have shown that it is rather through the western Assam dialects that the development of modern Assamese has to be traced". 
4. Goswami, Upendranath (1975), Grammatical Sketches of Indian Languages With Comparative Vocabulary And Texts, Linguistic Survey of India, Census of India 1971, p.35 Thus it is clear that Kamrupi dialect does not only claim as the mother of modern Assamese, but also that this speech continued to exert its appreciable influence on Assamese literature, both prose and poetry. It is worth mentioning here that Assamese Vocabularies may greatly be enriched by incorporation of certain important words and expressions, still in vogue in the modern district of Kamrup proper, in modern Assamese lexicon.
5. The Kamrupi Apabhramsa  (1968) in Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 18, p.81, "Though Apabhramsa works in Kamrupi Specimens are not available, yet we can trace the prevalence of early Kamrupi Apabhramsa through the window of archaic froms as found in the grants or Copper-plates mentioned above. This sort of Sporadic Apabhramsa is a mixture of Sanskrit, Prakrit and colloquial dialects of Assam."
6. Choudhury, Dr. Pratap Chandra (1959), The history of civilisation of the people of Assam to the twelfth century A.D., Dept. of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Gauhati, p.395 "The best specimens of wise sayings are contained in a work, 'Dakabhanita', attributed to Daka, written in old Kamarupi dialect. The work provides an important specimen of the ancient literature of Assam. It is, however, too early to ascribe the work to the 6th century A.D., as done by D.N. Bezbarua. It may have been composed about the 8th century A.D.  It is true that Daka flourished at a time when the written literature of Assam had scarcely taken its birth. The place of the nativity of Daka is given in the work, which states that he was the native of the Lehidangara near modern Barpeta."
7. Choudhary, Abhay Kant (1971), Early Medieval Village in North-eastern India, A.D. 600-1200:Mainly a Socio-economic Study, Punthi Pustak (India), page 253, pages 411 "Daka is stated to have belonged to village Lehidangara near Barpeta in the district of Kamrup, and the Dakabhanita, a work in the old Kamarupi dialect, said to have been composed about the 8th century A D."
8. Goswami, Upendranath  (1970), A study on Kamrupi: a dialect of Assamese, Department of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Assam, Page 4 "They cannot furnish the grammatical structure of Kamrupi or Assamese for which we are to turn our attention to the songs of the Buddhist Siddhacaryas, known as Caryas, composed in between 8th to 12th centuries A.D."
9. Barma, Sukhbilas (2007), Socio-Political Movements In North Bengal (A Sub-Himalayan Tract), "Suniti Kumar Chatterji, in "The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language" published in 1926 has given to this dialect of North Bengal the name 'Kamrupi'."
10. Barma, Sukhabilasa (2004), Bhawaiya, ethnomusicological study, p.103, Global Vision Publishing House,"Acharya Suniti Chattopadhyay has commented that Assam was practically an extension of North Bengal, from its geographical position, so far as its speech and early history were concerned. Dr. Sukumar Sen says, Oriya and Assamese have intimate relations with Bengali. All three were the same language initially. There is not much difference between Kamrupi dialect of Bengali and Assamese. Assamese has differed from Kamrupi in the modern period because of inclusion of innumerable Deshi words."
11. Goswami, Upendranath (1970),  A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese, Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Assam. p. 1 "Assamese entered into Kamarupa or western Assam where this speech was first characterised as Assamese. This is evident from the remarks of Hiuen Tsang who visited the Kingdom of Kamarupa in the first half of the seventh century A.D., during the reign of Bhaskaravarman."
12. Medhi, Kaliram (1936), Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language, Sri Gouranga Press, p. 66 "The language of the pre-Vaisnava and Vaisnava was the dialect of Western Assam while the language of the modern literature is that of Eastern Assam. This latter has been accepted by the common consent as the literary language of the country. Political power thus determined the centre of literary activity and also of the form of literary language."
13. Golockchandra Goswami (1982), Structure of Assamese, Department of Publication, Gauhati University, p. 11 "The Eastern and Central dialects may be regarded as uniform to a certain extent in their respective areas, while Western Asamiya is heterogeneous in character, with large regional variations in the east, west, north and south. There must have been in early times as well, diverse dialects and dialect groups as at present. But then, there seems to be only one dominant literary language prevailing over the whole area; and that was Western Asamiya, the sole medium of all ancient Asamiya literature including the Buranjis written in the Ahom courts. This was because the centre of all literary activities in early times was in western Assam; and the writers were patronized by the kings and local potentates of that region. In the later period, however, even though the centre of literary activities moved to eastern Assam in the Ahom period, the writers continued to accept and use the existing model of the literary style of that time".
14. Goswami, Upendranath (1970),  A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese, Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Assam. p. 14 "Politically, socially and culturally Kamrup formed a separate unit and its speech also was compelled to take a shape to form a distinct dialect. It is only by chance that this dialect had to lose its prestige and had to remain as a dialect".
15. Medhi, Kaliram (1936), Assamese grammar and origin of the Assamese language, Publication Board, Assam, Page 84 "Prose had also been used by the Maithili poets, Vidyapati, Harsanatha and others,--in their dramas. But whereas the Maithili poets prose was in Sanskrit and their songs alone in Maithili Sankara Deva's prose and songs were both in Kamrupi."
16. Goswami, Upendranath (1970). A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese, Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Assam. p. 28 "The sub-dialectical varieties of Kamrupi may be grouped mainly into three divisions —western, central and southern. The variety spoken in the area comprising Barpeta, Sundardiya, Patbausi, Bhabani- pur etc. is western, that of Nalbari and its surrounding areas is central and that of Palasbari, Chaygong, Boko etc. is southern."
17. Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1926), The origin and development of the Bengali language, Volume 1, Calcutta university press, "One would expect one and identical language to have been current in North Central Bengal (Pundra-vardhana) and North Bengal and West Assam (Kamarupa) in the 7th century, since these tracts, and other parts of Bengal, had almost the same speech." 
18. Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1926) The origin and development of the Bengali language, Volume 1 "Eastern Magadhi Prakrita and Apabhramsa has four dialect groups (1) Radha-the language of West Bengal and Orissa (2) Varendra-dialect of North Central Bengal (3) Kamarupa-dialect of Northern Bengal and Assam and (4) Vanga-dialect of East Bengal."
19. Goswami, Upendranath (1975), Grammatical Sketches of Indian Languages With Comparative Vocabulary And Texts, Linguistic Survey of India, Census of India 1971, p. 36. "This Kamrupi dialect, with a long history of its own differs greatly from the eastern variety of Assamese."
20. Goswami, Upendranath (1975), Grammatical Sketches of Indian Languages With Comparative Vocabulary And Texts, Linguistic Survey of India, Census of India 1971, p.31 "Assamese, or more appropriately the old Kamarupi dialect entered into Kamrup or western Assam, where this speech was first characterized as Assamese."
21. Panth, Rabindra (2004), Buddhism and Culture of North-East India, p.8, p.p 152 "it bears a close resemblance to modern Assamese language, the direct offspring of the old Kamarupi dialect."
22. Goswami, Upendranath (1970). A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese. Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Assam. p. ii. "Dr. U. N. Goswami, the author of the present work, already a well known writer on the science of Assamese language, has, however, made an honest attempt at the treatment of the linguistic study of Assamese, based on the Kamarupi dialect."
23. Kāmarūpa Anusandhān Samiti, Assam (India). 1983. The Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 27.  p. 27. "The Kamarupi script developed into the medieval Assamese script and the latter into the modern Assamese script. The Assamese script maintains some relationship with the Bengali and the Maithili scripts."
24. Bangladesh Itihas Samiti (1999), Sylhet: History and Heritage, Page 591 "Suniti Kumar Chatterjee in his Origin and Development of Bangla Language (ODBL) divided the Bangla dialect into four groups in accordance with the name of the regions such as Rada, Pundra or Barindra, Banga and Kamrupi."
25. Sarma, Arabindanath (1986), Writing in Assamese in Indian literature: Volume 30 (1987), Sahitya Akademi, Page 31 "Ambikagiri set a new trend in Assamese by his abundant use of Kamrupi language in his writings."
26. Barua, Kanak Lal (1933), Early History of Kāmarupa, Page 31 "It seems that in the sixth or the seventh century this kingdom of Davaka was absorbed by Kamarupa, for according to Yuan Chwang's account the Kapili valley was included in Kamarupa."
27. Choudhary, Radhakrishna (1976), A Survey of Maithili Literature, Page 16 "According to Kanak Lal Barua, the Kamrupi dialect was originally a variety of eastern Maithili and it was, no doubt, the spoken Aryan language throughout the kingdom which then included the whole of Assam valley and whole of North Bengal with the addition of the district of Purnea. The language of the Buddhist Dohas is described as belonging to the mixed Maithili - Kamrupi language."
28. Sengupta, Madhumita (2016). Becoming Assamese: Colonialism and New Subjectivities in Northeast India. Routledge. p. 100. "Recent scholarship has also focussed on the fact that Kamrupi Prakrit or Kamrupi Apabhramsa differed vastly from the Sibsagariya group of dialects in terms of phonology, morphology and vocables and that the latter contains a large number of Perso-Arabic words presumably derived from the region's close association with Mughal India. The antiquity of Kamrupi has also been confirmed, with scholars recognising definite traces of this Prakrit in pre-Ahom inscriptions of Kamrup, despite conscious efforts on the part of the authors to produce in authentic Sansktit. It has been pointed out that even after the twelfth century the Kamrupi apabhramsa was continue to be used for composing popular songs and ballad, in mantra puthis or popular incantation of Dak."
29. Barua, Kanak Lal (1933), Early History of Kamarupa, p. 318 "The Kamarupi dialect was originally a variety of eastern Maithili and it was no doubt the spoken Aryan language throughout the kingdom which then included the whole of the Assam valley and the whole of northern Bengal with the addition of the Purnea district of Bihar. It is not therefore at all strange the language of the Buddhist Dohas, composed in Kamarupa during the tenth and the eleventh centuries, should be a mixed Maithili-Kamrupi language bearing close resemblance to modern Assamese, the direct offspring of the old Kamarupi dialect."

Kamrup Ki Kahani

"Kamrup Ki Kahani" is an serial, which used to be telecasted in Doordarshan National, the national channel of India, during 1990 's. It is based on the Kamrupi novel  "Datal Hatir Une Khowa Howdah" ("Moth Eaten Howdah Of the Tusker" in English) by noted author Indira Goswami . Set in Palashbari , Kamrup , it explores the life of widows of Brahmins . The Protagonist was played by noted actress Nandita Das, who as Giribaala narrates her experiences.

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Chill Mates ! My name is Bhaskar Bhagawati. I generally write about Kamrup and Kamrupi, that what interests me. Please note that content of this blog are not my original research rather i consulted different scholarly articles and books. I have posted most of blog's content to English Wikipedia and unaltered form of articles are available here.