Aryan migration to Assam

    The Aryan wave extended to Kamarupa directly from Videha (Mithila) and Magadha long before Lower Bengal became either habitable or fit for Aryan occupation. Kamarupa was therefore Aryanized long before central and lower Bengal.¹

    The Magadha empire was founded by Chandra Gupta in the fourth century B.C. About this time, or after, the whole of northern Bengal, to the south of the Jalpaiguri district and west of the Trisrota, was absorbed in the Maurya empire together with the Tamralipti region in the south west. The Mauryan empire of Asoka undoubtedly included northern Bengal between the Teesta (Karatoya) and the Kosi, for within this area stupas erected by Asoka were found by Yuan Chwang in the seventh century A. D. This area continued to be included in the Magadha empire at least till the sixth century A.D. During the rule of the Imperial Gupta's this stretch was known as Pundravardhana. To the east and north of Pundravardhana, Kamarupa continued as an independent kingdom ruled over by an indigenous line of kings who traced descent from rulers Naraka of Mithila and his descendents Bhagadatta and Vajradatta who were heroes mentioned in the epics. From epigraphic records, so far brought to light, it is possible to trace an almost unbroken genealogy of these kings from about the middle of the fourth century A.D down to the twelfth century or a period of nearly nine hundred years. Very few of the old Hindu kingdoms in India can present such unique genealogical records covering such a long period.

 

Inscriptions

    No less than twelve copperplate inscriptions, inscribed seals and rock-inscriptions recorded by various kings of Kamarupa during this period have been discovered and deciphered. Epigraphic records left by the famous Gupta emperor Samudra Gupta, Yasodharman, king of Malwa, who was a famous conqueror, Adityasena, who belonged to the line of "Later Gupta's of Magadha", Jayadeva, a well-known king of Nepal and some of the Pala kings and Sena kings of Bengal provide useful material for the history of Kamarupa during this period. The Raghuvaugsa of Kalidasa, the very valuable accounts of the Chinese writers, the Harsha-Charita of Banabhatta, the Raja-tarangini of Kahlan and the translations from Tibetan records, made available, also throw valuable light. The local epigraphic records constitute, however the most important foundation;on on which a reliable frame-work of history can be based. These can be enumerated as follows in chronological order:-

• The Nidhanpur copper-plate inscription of Bhaskar Varman (Circa 610 A.D.) discovered and deciphered by Pandit Padmanath Bhattacharya Vidya Vinod and published in Epigraphia Indica, Vols XII and XIX. One plate of this inscription is still missing.

• The Nalanda clay-seal of Bhaskar Varman,(circa 643 A.D.) deciphered by Mr. K. N. Dikshit and published in the journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol. VI (1920).

• The Hayungthal copper-plate inscription of Harjara-Varman (circa 825 A.D.) discovered and deciphered by Pandit Padmanath Bhattacharya Vidya Vinod and published by him in his "Kamarupa Vansavali". Only the middle plate of this inscription has been discovered.

• The rock-inscription of Harjara-Varman near Tezpur (dated 510 Gupta era equivalent to 829 A.D.) deciphered by M. M. Pandit Hariprasad Shastri and published in the Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, December 1917.

• The Tezpur copper-plate inscription of Vanamala-Varman (circa 854 A. D.) deciphered by Pandit Kamala Kanta and published in the journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol. IX,1840.

• The Nagaon copper-plate inscription of Bala Varman III (circa 883 A.D.) originally deciphered by the late M. M. Pandit Dhireswara Bhattacharya Kaviratna and published in the `Assam. It was subsequently re-deciphered by Rudolf Hoernle and published in the journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (No. i of 1897).

• The Bargaon copper-plate inscription of Ratna Pala (circa 1025 A. D.) deciphered by Hoernle and published in the journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Part I of 1888).

• The Sualkuchi copper-plate inscription of Ratna Pala (circa 1026 A.D.) deciphered by Hoernle and published in the journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,(part I of 1898).

• The Guwahati copper-plate inscription of Indra Pala (circa 1038 A.D.) deciphered by Hoernle and published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal(part I of 1897).

• The Guakuchi copper-plate inscription of Indra Pala (circa 1051 A.D.) deciphered by Pandit Padmanath Bhattacharya Vidya Vinod and published by him in his "Kamarupa Vansanavali".

• The first copper-plate inscription of Dharma Pala (circa 1092 A.D.) collected by the late Hem Chandra Gosain, deciphered by Pandit Padmanath Bhattacharya Vidya Vinod and published in his "Kamarupa Vansanavali".

• The second or Puspabhada copper-plate inscription of Dharma Pala (circa 1110 A.D.) deciphered by the late Hem Chandra Gossain and published by Pandit Vidya Vinod in his "Kamarupa Vansanavali".

• The rock-inscription in North Guwahati dated 1127 Saka equivalent to 1205-06 A. D. relating to the defeat of Mahammad-i-Bukhityar in Kamarupa. Col. Gordon read a paper on this inscription in 1918. A photograph of this inscription also appears in Pandit Vidya Vinod's "Kamarupa Vansavali". This inscription was referred to in paper on the "Earlier Muhammadan invasions of Kamarupa" read in the anniversary meeting of the Kamarupa Anusandhan Samiti during 1931. General Jenkins collected and forwarded to the Asiatic Society of Bengal the inscription of Vanamala and another said to have been recorded by Dharma Pala in the thirty sixth year of his reign. The Society published the text of the Vanamala inscription but the one said to have been recorded by Dharma Pala was not published at all and it is not traceable now. Probably it was one of the Dharma Pala inscriptions now published by Pandit Vidya Vinod. All the inscriptions deciphered by Dr. Hoerale were sent to him by Sir Edward Gait who was then Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of Assam and was collecting materials for his "History of Assam" which was actually published.
  

 

Reference material

    The spread of Aryan culture into the northeastern regions of ancient India, particularly modern-day Assam and its surrounding areas, is documented in several ancient texts, including the Satapatha Brahmana, Aitareya Brahmana, Gopatha Brahmana, and Sankhyayana Grihasamgraha. Additionally, references in the commentaries on Kautilya’s Arthashastra provide evidence of economic interactions with this region during the third century BCE. These texts collectively highlight the gradual expansion of Aryan cultural, religious, and economic influence eastward, reaching areas such as the Brahmaputra Valley and regions beyond the Karatoya River.

 

Satapatha Brahmana

    The Satapatha Brahmana, a significant Vedic text associated with the Shukla Yajurveda, alludes to the eastward expansion of Aryan culture beyond the Karatoya River, a major river in present-day northern West Bengal and Bangladesh. This text, dated approximately to the first millennium BCE, suggests that Aryan cultural practices, including Vedic rituals and societal norms, were being adopted or adapted in regions east of the traditional Aryan heartland in the Gangetic plains. The mention of the Karatoya River as a geographical marker indicates that the cultural influence of the Aryans extended into what is now eastern India and possibly parts of modern Assam, signifying a significant eastward movement of Vedic traditions.⁴

Aitareya Brahmana

    The Aitareya Brahmana, part of the Rigveda and dated to around the 8th–6th centuries BCE, references the spread of Aryan culture into the prehistoric Brahmaputra Valley. This region, encompassing modern Assam and parts of northeastern India, was likely a frontier area during the Vedic period. The text suggests that Aryan settlers or cultural practices had penetrated this fertile valley, known for its rich biodiversity and strategic location. The Brahmaputra Valley’s integration into the Aryan cultural sphere likely involved the adoption of Vedic rituals, social structures, and linguistic elements, contributing to the region’s gradual Aryanization.

Gopatha Brahmana

    The Gopatha Brahmana, associated with the Atharvaveda, provides insight into the etymology of the term Kamarupa, a historical name for a region in ancient Assam. The text narrates the origin of the name Kamarupa, linking it to mythological or cultural traditions. Kamarupa (literally, "form of desire") is traditionally associated with the region around modern Guwahati in Assam, which became a prominent cultural and political center in later periods. The reference in the Gopatha Brahmana underscores the integration of this region into the broader Aryan cultural framework, possibly through the establishment of Vedic settlements or interactions with local populations.⁴

Sankhyayana Grihasamgraha

    The Sankhyayana Grihasamgraha, another Vedic text, refers to the region of Pragjyotisha as the "land of sunrise." Pragjyotisha, often identified with modern Assam, is depicted as a significant eastern territory in ancient Indian literature. The epithet "land of sunrise" likely reflects its geographical position in the far east of the Indian subcontinent, where the sun rises earliest. This reference highlights the region’s recognition within the Vedic cultural and geographical imagination, suggesting that Pragjyotisha was viewed as a distinct yet connected part of the Aryan world, possibly serving as a cultural and economic hub.⁵

Economic Interactions in Kautilya’s Arthashastra

    Commentaries on Kautilya’s Arthashastra, a seminal treatise on statecraft and economics from the third century BCE, mention the import of economic goods from Sonkuriha (also referred to as Suvarnakundya), a village located in the present-day Nalbari district of Assam. The reference to Sonkuriha indicates that this region was integrated into the broader economic networks of ancient India by the Mauryan period. Goods from Sonkuriha likely included valuable commodities such as textiles, spices, or forest products, which were traded across the subcontinent. This economic connectivity suggests that the northeastern regions were not isolated but actively participated in the commercial and cultural exchanges of the time, further facilitated by their incorporation into the Aryan socio-economic framework.7

Historical and Cultural Context

    The references in these texts collectively illustrate the gradual expansion of Aryan culture into the northeastern regions of India. This process likely involved a combination of migration, cultural assimilation, and economic integration. The Karatoya River and Brahmaputra Valley served as key geographical markers, while names like Kamarupa and Pragjyotisha became synonymous with the region’s cultural and historical identity. The economic interactions noted in the Arthashastra further highlight the region’s role in ancient India’s trade networks, connecting local economies with the broader Mauryan empire.

    The spread of Aryan culture leading to a syncretic cultural landscape. Vedic rituals, Sanskrit-based nomenclature, and economic exchanges, shaping the historical development of northeastern India. These textual references provide valuable insights into the dynamics of cultural and economic expansion in ancient India, underscoring the significance of the northeastern regions in the broader narrative of Indian civilization.

 

Sources

1. Barua, Kanak Lal (1933), Early History of Kamarupa, pp. I The Aryan wave extended to Kamarupa directly from Videha and Magadha long before Lower Bengal became either habitable or fit for Aryan occupation. Kamarupa was therefore Aryanized long before central and lower Bengal.
2. Sharma, Naliniranjan (1994), The Kāmarūpa School of Dharmaśāstra, Punthi Pustak, p.3 Moreover, the discovery of the copper plate-inscriptions issued by different kings of ancient Assam (Kamarupa) at different times brings to light the Aryan colour of the cultural heritage of Assam.
3. Barua, B.M (1947), The Indian Historical Quarterly - Volumes 23-24, Calcutta Oriental Press, p. 209 The above suggestion, that the first Indo-Aryan rule favourable to Brahmanism was founded in Kamarupa with Pusyavarman as the first ruler under Samudragupta received its support from these two facts
4. Niśipada Caudhurī (1985), Historical archaeology of central Assam, B.R. Publishing Corporation, p.2, ISBN 9780865907126, 0865907129
   
5. Pathak, Guptajit (2008), Assam's history and its graphics, Mittal Publications, p. 39, ISBN 9788183242516, 8183242510
   
6. Niśipada Caudhurī (1985), Historical archaeology of central Assam, B.R. Publishing Corporation, p.26, ISBN 9780865907126, 0865907129 Assam's early contact with Aryan India is revealed by the reference in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Kautilya's reference to Aryanized place-names in Kamarupa shows that during the Mauryan period, an Aryan wave entered the land.
7. Barua, Prafulla Chandra (1965), Fundamentals of Assamese culture, The Author, p. 20. Commentators of Kautilya's Arthashastra of third century B.C. viz. Bhattaswami and Kulluka Bhatta make special reference to the best specimens of Ksauma, Dukula and Patrorņa standing for pāt , mugā and edi from Kamarupa . An āgurān of śiśupāt could be concealed in ones palm. Modern Sonkuriha, a village in Uporborbhag mouza of Nalbari circle in Kamrup district has been identified with Suvarnakudya of the ancient times (Arthashastra).

Bhattadeva

Bhattadeva (1558-1638) (Baikunthanatha Bhagavata Bhattacharya) was the renowned Sanskrit scholar and father of Assamese prose. 

Early life

Bhattadeva was born to Chandra Bharati and Tara Devi in a Brahmin family of Bheragaon/Bheragram in Barpeta of Kamrup.1 After finishing his education he became a disciple of Damodaradeva and succeeded him as the head of Patbausi Satra at Barpeta. He established the Vyasakuchi Satra some time later where he died. He is best known for Katha Bhagavat and Katha Gita, though some minor works like Saranamalika and Prasangamala are also ascribed to him.

Works

Though Bhaktiratnakar-Katha, the Kamrupi1 translation of Sankar Deva's Sanskrit composition Bhaktiratnakar by Gopala Charana Dvija preceded the works of Bhattadeva. Bhattadeva's prose had an influence in the development of a high and dignified style. Bhattadeva's and Gopala Charana Dvija's 16th century works are considered to be the earliest examples of prose in Indian languages. Bhattadeva's erudition in Sanskrit grammar and literature, and his command over the Bhagavata earned him the title of Bhagavata Bhattacharya.

Bhattadeva began translating the Sanskrit Bhagavata into Kamrupi prose at the bidding of Damodaradeva, who wanted it to be accessible to the common man. He rendered Katha Bhagavata in a discursive style that is dignified and balanced^. He maintains the same sense of dialogue in the Katha Gita. Though he uses short sentences, popular vocabulary and the expressive cadence of the colloquial, he uses Sanskrit vocables heavily and his language is an elevated one. After completing the Bhagavata and the Gita, he rendered the Bhaktiratnavali into elegant prose. He also compiled a book of devotional verses in Sanskrit gleaned from the Upanishads, Puranas and Samhitas illustrating all the elements of Bhakti. The work, Bhakti-Viveka reveals extensive knowledge and erudition of Bhattadeva, from the vedic to the puranic literature. Bhattadeva's contributions are not confined to prose literature, he wrote poetry also.

Sources

1. Medhi, Kaliram (1936), Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language, Publication Board, Assam, p.78 Bhatta Deva stood in the same relation to Sri Damodar Deva, as Madhava Deva  to Sri Sankara Deva. He maybe truly styled the father of Assamese prose. He was a contemporary of Madhava deva and was born in Bheragaon in the Barpeta sub-division. The most important of his works are the Katha Bhagavata and Katha Gita
2. Goswami, Upendranath (1970), A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese, Department of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Gauhati, p.6 Rama Sarasvati, Ananta Kandali, Sridhara Kandali, Sarvabhauma Bhattacarya, Dvija Kalapacandra and Bhattadeva, the father of Assamese prose, all hailed from the present district of Kamrup. In the writings of the early Assamese writers mentioned above reflections of the Kamrupi dialect are evident.

Kamrupi literature

    ''Kamrupi literature'' is the literature written in the Kamrupi language. The Kamrupi is ancient eastern most Indo-European language which literature flourished from first millennium A.D. This article primarily deals with some of the literature from Kamarupa and adjoining areas written in Kamrupi.

    Yuan Chwang, in the seventh century A.D. found that the dialect of Kamarupa differed only a little from that of Magadha or mid India. The Kamrupi was originally a variety of eastern Maithili and it was no doubt the spoken Aryan language throughout the kingdom which then included the whole of the Brahmaputra valley and the whole of northern Bengal with the addition of the Purnea district of Bihar. It is not therefore at all strange that the language of the Buddhist dohas, composed in Kamarupa during the tenth and the eleventh centuries, should be a mixed Maithili-Kamrupi language bearing close resemblance to modern Assamese language, the direct offspring of the Old Kamrupi language. Perhaps these dohas were composed in a language which could be easily understood throughout Eastern India.

    The earliest Kamrupi literature was unwritten and consisted of nursery songs, pastoral ballads sung by cowherds, songs of boatmen, songs describing the twelve months, songs for propitiation of the goddess of small-pox (Sitala) and wedding songs. Naturally the composition and language of these songs and ballads differed somewhat from district to district. Those collected and published by the University of Calcutta in the first volume of the work known as "Asamiya Sahityar Chaneki" were not necessarily the ones current throughout the kingdom of Kamarupa. Grierson published, in the journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, a version of the "Kanya Baromahi Geet" current in northern Bengal towards the end of the last century. This very song is still current in Assam in a somewhat varied form. It is quite possible that when northern Bengal was a part of Kamarupa the same version of the song was current throughout Kamrup, Goalpara and Rangpur. The mantras or incantations uttered to exorcise ghosts, to cure snake-bites or to perform feats of sorcery as well as the wise sayings or aphorisms ascribed to Daka Purusha belong to this category of unwritten literature. The late Pundit Hem Chandra Goswami thought that the aphorisms of Dak were first reduced to writing about 800 A.D. Some of these aphorisms refer to trading on the Arracan coast when the sea stretched from the southern slopes of the Garo Hills. It can therefore easily assign Daka to a very early period. He belonged to the village of Lehi-Dangara in the Barpeta district.

    The earliest written puthis in the Kamrupi language date from about the second quarter of the fourteenth century. During this period flourished two poets, viz, Hema Saraswati and Haribar Bipra. Hema Saraswati composed the "Prahlad Charitra" based on the Vamana Purana while Haribar Bipra translated the Aswamedha Parva of the Mababharata. Kaviratna was the author of the "Jayadratha Vadha". His home was at Sila, a village within the Barpeta district. The writings of all these three poets are still extant. To a some what later period belonged Madhava Kandali and Rudra Kandali. The former versified portions of the Ramayana and the latter composed, in Kamrupi verse, portions of the Mahabharata. Sankara Deva who was born in 1449 A.D. refers to Madhava Kandali as one of the reputed poets belonging to an earlier age. It may therefore place both Madhava Kandali and Rudra Kandali towards the end of the fourteenth century. In his Ramayana, Madhava Kandali himself states that his other name was Kaviraj-Kandali and that though he could easily compose verses in Sanskrit he composed the Ramayana in local verse for the benefit of the people at large. Madhava Kandali wrote also another poem entitled "Devajit." 

    Sixteenth century, witnessed a great development of the vernacular literature of Kamarupa. The Yogini Tantra, a well-known Sanskrit work which gives the boundaries of the kingdom of Kamarupa as it existed during the rule of the Pala kings probably written in Kamarupa during the first pact of the sixteenth century. To this period it must also assign the compilation of the Behula Upakhyana by Durgabar Kayastha, a native of Kamakhya.
The story of Behula and Chand Sadagar appears to be common to both Bengal and Kamarupa. The ballads connected with this story must have been current in western Kamarupa and the rest of northern Bengal long before the verses were reduced to writing by Sukavi Naravan probably in the thirteenth century and by Durgabar in the early part of the sixteenth century. The ballads of Sukavi Naravan's composition are still sung in Kamrup and they are known as Suk Nanis or Suk-Narayanis to this day. Sukavi Narayan was very likely a poet of Kamarupa who described the sea-voyages of a Kamrupi trader named Chand Sadagar whose home was in Chaygaon in modern Kamrup, on the south bank of the Brahmaputra but, strangely enough, both Sukavi Narayan and Chand Sadagar have been claimed as natives of Bengal. The songs of Durgabar are still known as Durgabari.

    Pandit Siddhanta-Vagisha compiled in Sanskrit, the eighteen volumes of a work on smriti known as the Kaumudi. Another Pandit wrote a more authoritative work in smriti known as Smriti-Sagara in four volumes. The famous Bengali smarta Pundit Raghunandan mentioned this work as the "Kamaruvi nibandha". This valuable work has now disappeared. Sridhara compiled a treatise on astronomy while Purusottama Vidyavagish compiled a Sanskrit grammar known as Ratnamala which is still regarded as a standard work. This period marks the Vaishnava period of vernacular literature. Among the reputed writers of this period were Sankara Deva, Madhava Deva, Rama Saraswati, Ananta Kandali, Chandra Bharati, Sridhara Kandali, Pittimbar Dvija, Gopala Misra, Chandrachura Aditya, Vishnu Bharati, Ramcharan Thakur, Krishnananda Dvija, Damodara Dasa, Ratnakara Misra, Ramananda Dvija, Bhusana Dvija, Norottama Thakur, Gopinath Pathak, Ramrai Dasa, and Sriram Jadumani. Nearly' all mentioned writers composed verses but Bhatta Deva wrote in prose. His "Katha Bhagavata" and the "Katha Geeta" constitute perhaps the earliest vernacular prose composition in Kamarupa. Sankar Deva was a prolific writer in vernacular verse and a poet of high order. His most popular works were the Kirtan" and the Dasam meant to popularize his own tenet. Sankar Deva also wrote a Sanskrit work eititled Bhakti Ratnakara. The two most important works of Madhava Deva were the Nama Ghosa and the Bhakti-Ratnavali.

    There is much controversy as to the authorship and date of a work known as Dipiki Chanda. Internal evidence points to the compilation of the work after the death of Sankara Deva. The author is said to have been a king called Purusottama Gajapati. Several local writers have attempted to locate him somewhere in Assam but all have failed to notice the fact that Purusottama Gajapati was a well-known powerful king of Orissa who ruled from 1476 to 1497 A.D. and whose kingdom, or rather empire, extended from the Hugli district in modern Bengal as far as the Guntur district of the Madras Presidency. He was the son of Kapilendra Gajapati and the father of Pratapa Rudra, the last powerful Gajapati who ruled from 1497 to 1541 A. D. and who was a contemporary of Sri Chaitanya. Purusottama Gajapati was a devout Vaisnava and he may have written the work known as Dipika Chanda in order to ridicule the later Buddhist cult and the Tantrik system. There was close connection between Kamarupa and Orissa in the sixteenth century on account of the existence, in the latter country, of the famous temple of Jagannatha at Puri. It is possible that an local Vaisnava came across the book and translated it into vernacular verse. The title Gajapati could not have been assumed by an ordinary king. It was assumed by Kapilendra, the father of Purusottama, who possessed, according to the Muslim account Burhan-i-maasir, two hundred thousand war elephants.

    The late M. M. Pandit Haraprasad Shastri was presented by the staff of the Nepal Durbar Library with copies of two works one of which was the Dakarnava. Pandit Sastri says that this work, though almost entirely written in Sanskrit, contains some verses in a curious form of Prakrit. He writes:

"I was anxious to get a copy of the work because in Bengal there are numerous agricultural sayings known as Dakar Vachana in an old form of language. I am enquiring all my life as to who this Daka was, without getting any satisfactory explanation from any quarter. This work may give a clue to the meaning. It says Daka is Vireswara and is the masculine of Dakini, mischievous imp, much dreaded by the credulous people of Bengal. Now we know that Vira is a votary of the left-handed worship. So this Daka of our proverbs was probably a saint of the left-handed form of worship. I have examined the verses in the curious dialect in the work but it will require a more careful examination than I can give at present".(Report on the search of Sanskrit Manuscripts 1895 to 1900).

    It is rathar strange that a well-informed scholar like Pandit H. P. Shastri could not had out that Daka was a native of Kamarupa and that the "old form of language" met by him was nothing else than old Kamrupi. As a matter of fact however, the Dakarnava, was not related with Daka Purush the famous author of proverb. It is probably a Tantrik work dealing with the propitiation of Daks and Dakinis (male and female evil spirit).

    The Assam Government collection of Sanskrit and Kamrupi manuscripts now deposited in the library of the Kamarupa Anusandhan Samiti, includes quite a good number of works. These are mostly works on astronomy, astrology, mathematics, proverbs, riddles, mantras, medicine, history or traditions and also tantras. Among the Sanskrit works the most note-worthy are Abhuta Sara book dealing with the propitiatory rites for ascertaining mischief likely to be caused by the occurrence of strange events, the Apaduddhdra Mantra, a tantrik work, the Astabargi Dasa, an astrological work, the Graha Vija Jnana an astronomical work, Graha Aryda, a treatise on eclipses, the Graha Puja Vidhi, the Graha Stava and the Graha Snana Mantra, all works on planetary worship and the Hastamuhtavali. a treatise on the art of dancing. The author of the last named book was one Subhankara Kavi. A copy of this work was recovered by Pandit H. P. Sastri from Nepal and another was found in Mithila. This also indicates close cultural intercourse between the adjacent kingdoms of Kamarupa, Mithila and Nepal in the old days.

    The Yuddha Jayanava Dasa, Jyotisha Chakra, Jataka Chandrika, Kerali, Jyotisha Darpan, Jyotisha Ratnamala and the Jyotisha Muktavali are all astrological works pertaining to preparation of horoscopes. The Mantra Prakasa and the Mandaladhyaya are Tantrik works. The Samudrika is a treatise on palmistry. The Shatachakra by Purnananda Paramahamsa is also a Tantrik work dealing with astral physiology. Besides the above there are numerous works on Hindu religion and religious rites based upon the Smrita Sastras. Of the works in the vernacular language of Kamarupa the most important are Bhamvati, an astrological work by Kavirajt Chakravarti, the Ghora Nidana, a treatise on horse and treatment of equine diseases, Gukarati, a collection of mantras to ward off charms practised by Tantrik Buddhists who defy the authority of the Vedas, the Hara-Gauri Sambada, an important book which, like the Yogini Tantra, gives, in the guise of prophesies, the history of ancient Kamarupa, the Jyotish Churamani by Churamani Kayastha, a work on Arithemetic and land-Surveying, the Kamratna Tantra," an Kamrupi translation of a Tantrik work of that name ascribed to Gorakshanath, a celebrated Buddhist Siddha who flourished in the fourteenth century and the Kitabata Manjari by Bakul Kayastha written in Saka 1356 equivalent to 1434 A.D. This last named work is a poetical treatise on arithmetic, Surveying and book-keeping. The book teaches how accounts are to be kept under different heads and how stores belonging to the royal treasury are to be classified and entered into a stock-book. The bhandaragaradhikara of the Kamarupa kings mentioned in the Nidhanpur inscription were generally Kayasthas who were trained in book-keeping and accounts. Bakul Kayastha was the greatest mathematician of his time in Kamarupa. Suryahari Doibogna, the author of the Darrang Raj Vamsavali, wrongly placed him a century later making him translator of the famous arithmetical book of Lilavati, the well-known lady mathmatician. Another remarkable work on erotics is a collection of mantras used to secure the love of young damsels. There are several books containing mantras for the cure of fever, snake-bite, small-pox etc.

    It will appear from the above that the manuscripts collected represent literary activities covering a very wide range of subjects. Works dealing with astronomy and astrology are numerous. The conclusion that can be drawn is that Pragjyotisha, as its name implies, was, from the ancient times, a noted seat of learning in these two subjects and that the temple of the nine planets on the Navagraha hill near Guwahati was meant not merely for planetary worship but also, perhaps, as an observatory. The Tantrik works collected support the fact that Kamarupa was a stronghold of Tantrik Buddhism between the eighth and the fifteenth centuries. In Bengal and Bihar the Muslim conquerors, shocked by the debased practices of the Sahajia panthis, killed a good number of Kapalikas and burnt their books found in Odantapuri. Many of them escaped to Nepal and Tibet. In Kamarupa they continued to practise their rites undisturbed till the rise of Sankara Deva in the fifteenth century who roused public opinion in Assam against Tantrikism to such an extent that the followers of the cult were compelled to abandon most of their revolting rites preciously practised openly. The small number of Tantrik works collected is due to the fact that the Tantriks scrupulously observed the injunction of their preceptors to conceal their books, "Kula Pustakani Gopayet". It was with a great deal of persuasion that the owner of the manuscript entitled Kamaratna Tantra, mentioned above, was induced to hand it over to the Government collection. Further, after the spread of the Vaisnava cult of Sri Sankara Deva far and wide, Tantrikism fell into disrepute and Tantrik works were therefore probably destroyed in large numbers. A Tantrik work called Deva Damara was found by Pandit H. P. Shastri in Mymensing now in Bangladesh. The mantras of this work, meant to propitiate the 24 classes of demigods are in Kamrupi. This is not strange as Mymensing was always within Kamarupa.

Kamrupi Dholiya

Kamrupi Dholiya are expert professional drummers from undivided Kamrup district. Though associated with playing dhols or drums, are too known for mixing acting and acrobatic skills with same. Spontaneity of expressions and quickness of mind and feet were the hallmarks of Kamrupi Dholiya's. Drumming is accompanied by songs and acting skills.

Kamrupi crafts

Kamrupi crafts are traditional crafts from Kamrup. Brass and Bell Metal products of Kamrup are famous for their beauty and strength of form and utility. Brass is an important cottage industry with highest concentration in Hajo while Sarthebari is well known for its bell metal craft. The principal items of brass are the kalah (water pot), sarai (a platter or tray mounted on a base), kahi (dish), bati (bowl), lota (water pot with a long neck) and tal (cymbals). Gold, silver and copper too have formed part of traditional metalcraft in Kamrup, and the State Museum in Guwahati has a rich collection of items made of these metals. Gold is generally used in ornaments.

Nalanda Seal of Bhaskar Varman

Kamrupi Copper Plate Seal

Kamrupi Lokgeet

    "Kamrupi Lokgeet" is popular form of folk music that expresses thoughts and emotion of the common people of Kamrup.These songs are sung from time immemorial by various people of erstwhile undivided Kamrup district. Beside this various forms of songs linking the day to day activities are also popular like biyar geet (marriage songs), now khelar (boat race) geet, maha-kheda (mosquito drive out) geet, child's play geet, boroshibowa (fishing) geet, nisukoni (lallabye) geet and various forms of Domahi (harvest cultivation festivity) geet. This folk songs reflects every aspect of life of common people of  Kamrup.
Considerably influenced by a class of Vaishnava songs of the highest sophistication and refinement, both literary and musical, the Kamrupi Lokgeet's, although sung to the humble dolara and the dagar (or khanjari) demonstrate great intricacy. It is known for richness of musical modes.1

Sources

1. Dutta Goswami, Praphulla (1974), Folks-Songs of Assam in Sangeet Natak, Issues 31-34, Sangeet Natak Akademi, p.64 Also clothed in a religious garb are a large number of songs current in the Kamrup district which are rather popular and known as Kamrupi Loka-geet. What is remarkable about this songs is not their religion but the richness of their musical modes. Considerably influenced by a class of Vaishnava songs of the highest sophistication and refinement, both literary and musical, the Kamrupi Lokgeets, although sung to the humble dotara and the dagar (or Khanjari) demonstrates great intricacy  

Etymology of Assam

Western Assam was known as Pragjyotisha in Mahabharata and other Sanskrit epics. Kamarupa (Western Assam) and Davaka (Central Assam) in the 1st millennium.
The academic consensus is that the current name is based on the English word Assam by which the British  referred to the tract covered by the Brahmaputra valley and its adjoining areas. The named Assam applied to most of North East India including Brahmaputra and Barak river valleys, hills of Arunachal Pradesh (NEFA), Mizoram (Lushai Hills), Nagaland (Naga Hills) and Meghalaya (Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills.  

As evidenced from Satyendra Nath Sarma's quote that Assam (Eastern Assam) was known as Asama after 15th century till arrival of British. One of many theory states that Assam name derived from Sanskrit word "Asama" meaning unequal as referring to its geology which is equal mix of river valleys and hills, though several other theories also exists. The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as Assam.

Pala Dynasty of Kamrup Kingdom

The Pala dynasty of Kamrup ruled the kingdom from 900 A.D, from its capital at Durjaya (present-day North Gauhati). Like the Pala Dynasty of Bengal, the first ruler in this dynasty was elected, which probably explains the name of this dynasty "Pala". But unlike the Palas of Bengal, who were Buddhists, the Palas of Kamarupa were Hindus. The Hindu orthodoxy drew their lineage from the earlier Varman Dynasty and thus ultimately from Naraka.

The Pala dynasty came to an end when Kamarupa was invaded by the Gaur king Ramapala (c. 1072-1126). Timgyadeva was made the governor of Kamarupa who ruled between 1110 to 1126. Timgyadeva threw off the yoke of the Pala king and ruled independently for some years when he was attacked and replaced by Vaidyadeva under Ramapala's son Kumarapala. Vaidyadeva, who ruled between 1126 and 1140, declared independence within four years of his rule after the death of Kumarapala. Both Timgyadeva and Vaidyadeva issued grants in the style of the Kamarupa kings (three copper plates attached to the seal of the Kamarupa kings by a ring).

Rulers

• Brahma Pala (900-920)
• Ratna Pala (920-960)
• Indra Pala (960-990)
• Go Pala (990-1015)
• Harsha Pala (1015-1035)
• Dharma Pala (1035-1060)
• Jaya Pala (1075-1100)

Varman dynasty (Kamrup Kingdom)

    The Varman Dynasty, ruled the ancient kingdom of Kamarupa from approximately 350 to 650 CE. Established by Pushya Varman in 350 CE, this dynasty marked the beginning of a significant era in the history of eastern India, characterized by political consolidation, cultural development, and interactions with major Indian powers, notably the Gupta Empire. The Varmans traced their lineage to the Naraka of Mithila and his descendants, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta, which lent the dynasty a semi-divine status in regional traditions.

 

Historical Context and Foundation

    Kamarupa, an early state in the Brahmaputra Valley, emerged as a significant political entity under the Varman dynasty. Pushya Varman (r. 350–374 CE) is recognized as the first historical ruler of the dynasty, credited with establishing a centralized monarchical system in the region. The dynasty's early rulers governed from the capital, likely located at Pragjyotishpura (modern Guwahati), which served as a political and cultural hub. The Varmans maintained a complex relationship with the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE), initially as vassals, acknowledging Gupta suzerainty during the height of the empire's power under rulers like Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I.

Capital 

Ruins of Pragjyotishpura

     

    The dynasty, governed the kingdom of Kamarupa from its capital, Pragjyotishpura, which corresponds to modern-day Guwahati in Kamrup. ¹ Flourishing between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, the dynasty played a pivotal role in shaping the political, cultural, and religious landscape of eastern India. Pragjyotishpur, as the administrative and cultural heart of Kamarupa, served as the focal point for the dynasty’s governance, military campaigns, and diplomatic activities, cementing its historical significance in the region.

    Pragjyotishpur, meaning "City of Eastern Light" or "City of Astrology" in Sanskrit, was a thriving urban center and the political nucleus of the Kamarupa kingdom. Situated in the fertile plains of the Brahmaputra Valley, near present-day Guwahati, the city was ideally positioned to control trade routes connecting eastern India with Southeast Asia and China. Its geographical advantages included proximity to the Brahmaputra River, which supported agriculture and commerce, and its location at the foothills of the Shivalik range, which provided natural fortifications.

    The capital served as the administrative hub where the Varman kings issued decrees, managed regional governance, and maintained diplomatic relations. Archaeological evidence, including remains of ancient structures and inscriptions, suggests that Pragjyotishpur was a well-planned city with fortifications, temples, and administrative complexes. The city’s prominence is further corroborated by accounts from the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited Kamarupa during the reign of Bhaskar Varman in the 7th century CE and described Pragjyotishpur as a prosperous center of culture and learning.

 

Political Dynamics

    During the early phase of their rule, the Varmans operated as subordinate allies of the Gupta Empire, contributing to the Gupta's military campaigns and participating in their administrative framework. This relationship is evidenced by inscriptions and historical records, such as the Prayaga Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, which mentions Kamarupa as a frontier kingdom. However, as the Gupta Empire began to decline in the late 5th century due to internal strife and invasions by the Huna, the Varmans gradually asserted greater autonomy.

    A pivotal figure in this transition was Mahendra Varman (r. 470–494 CE), whose reign marked a significant assertion of independence. Mahendra Varman is noted for performing two Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) rituals, a rare and prestigious Vedic ceremony symbolizing imperial authority and sovereignty. These rituals underscored Kamarupa's growing power and its rulers' ambitions to establish themselves as equals to other major Indian dynasties.

Cultural and Religious Contributions

    The Varman dynasty played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and religious landscape of Kamarupa. The rulers were patrons of Vedic traditions, as evidenced by Mahendra Varman's Ashvamedha sacrifices, which reinforced their legitimacy through religious symbolism. The dynasty also fostered the development of early Shaivism and Vaishnavism in the region, with later rulers, such as Bhaskar Varman, claiming descent from the god Vishnu, a practice common among Indian dynasties to enhance their divine legitimacy.

    The Varmans also contributed to the spread of Sanskrit culture and Brahmanical traditions in northeastern India. The region became a center for learning and cultural exchange, with Pragjyotishpura emerging as a hub for scholars and religious practitioners. Archaeological evidence, such as inscriptions and temple remains, suggests the dynasty's investment in religious architecture and patronage of Brahmin communities.

Diplomatic Engagements

    The most prominent ruler of the Varman dynasty was Bhaskar Varman (r. c. 600–650 CE), whose reign represented the zenith of Kamarupa's political and cultural influence. Bhaskar Varman is celebrated for his diplomatic acumen and his alliance with Harsha Vardhana (r. 606–647 CE), the powerful ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty in northern India. Bhaskar Varman accompanied Harsha during significant religious processions from Pataliputra (modern Patna) to Kannauj, events that highlighted the close ties between Kamarupa and the northern Indian political sphere. These processions, described in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited Kamarupa during Bhaskar Varman's reign, underscored the kingdom's integration into the broader Indian cultural and religious networks.

    Bhaskar Varman's reign was also marked by his patronage of Buddhism, as Hieun Tsang noted the presence of Buddhist monasteries in Kamarupa. His diplomatic relations with Harsha and his role in regional politics elevated Kamarupa's status, making it a key player in the geopolitics of early medieval India.

Politics

Prayag Pillar Inscription

    The most illustrious of this dynasty was the last, Bhaskar Varman, He accompanied King Harshavardhana to religious processions from Pataliputra to Kannauj.The alliance between king Harsha of Thanesar and Bhaskar Varman lead to spread of political influence of later to entire eastern India. Varman kings had diplomatic relations with China.The Varman Dynasty played a significant role in the political and cultural landscape of eastern India during the early medieval period. The dynasty, known for its contributions to regional governance and cultural patronage, reached its zenith under the rule of its most celebrated monarch, Bhaskar Varman, who reigned in the 7th century CE. His reign marked a high point in the dynasty’s history, characterized by strategic alliances, diplomatic engagements, and the expansion of political influence across eastern India.

 

     Under the Varman rulers, Pragjyotishpur became a symbol of Kamarupa’s sovereignty and cultural vibrancy. The dynasty’s most notable monarch, Bhaskar Varman (r. early 7th century CE), elevated the city’s status through his political and diplomatic achievements. His reign saw Pragjyotishpur serve as the base for forging a significant alliance with King Harshavardhana of Thanesar and Kannauj, a partnership that extended Kamarupa’s influence across eastern India. Bhaskar Varman’s participation in religious processions with Harsha, as documented by Xuanzang, likely involved representatives from Pragjyotishpur, showcasing the city’s role in regional diplomacy.

    Pragjyotishpur was also a center of cultural and religious activity. The Varman kings were patrons of Hinduism and Buddhism, and the capital housed temples and monasteries that attracted scholars and pilgrims. The city’s cultural significance is further evidenced by its association with the worship of Kamakhya, a major deity in the region, whose temple near Pragjyotishpur remains a key religious site to this day.

 

Bhaskar Varman’s Reign

    Bhaskar Varman, the last prominent ruler of the Varman Dynasty, is regarded as one of the most illustrious figures in the history of ancient Kamrup. Ascending to the throne of the Kamarupa kingdom , he demonstrated exceptional political acumen and diplomatic foresight. His reign is particularly noted for his alliance with King Harshavardhana (Harsha), the powerful ruler of Thanesar and Kannauj, who dominated much of northern India during the same period. This alliance significantly enhanced Bhaskar Varman’s political stature and extended Kamarupa’s influence across eastern India.

Alliance with Harshavardhana

    One of the defining moments of Bhaskar Varman’s reign was his participation in religious and diplomatic engagements alongside King Harshavardhana. Historical records, including accounts by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), indicate that Bhaskar Varman accompanied Harsha during grand religious processions between Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar) and Kannauj (in present-day Uttar Pradesh). These processions, likely associated with Buddhist assemblies, underscored the cultural and religious ties between the two rulers. The alliance between Bhaskar Varman and Harsha was not merely ceremonial but also strategically significant. It facilitated the consolidation of Kamarupa’s political influence, enabling Bhaskar Varman to assert authority over much of eastern India, including parts of modern-day Assam, Bengal, and neighboring regions.

Diplomatic Relations with China

    The Varman Dynasty, under Bhaskar Varman, established notable diplomatic relations with the Tang Dynasty of China, reflecting Kamarupa’s prominence in regional geopolitics. Bhaskar Varman is recorded to have sent emissaries to the Tang court, fostering cultural and diplomatic exchanges. These interactions are documented in Chinese historical records, which highlight Kamarupa’s role as a significant power in eastern India. The diplomatic outreach to China also underscores Bhaskar Varman’s efforts to position Kamarupa as a key player in the broader Asian political and cultural sphere, particularly in the context of Buddhist networks that connected India, China, and Southeast Asia during this period.   

Cultural environment

    People were simple and honest with small stature and dark yellow complexion who speak a language that was a little different from Mid-India. Their nature was very impetuous and wild with retentive memories. People were sincere in study who adore and sacrificed to the Devas, and they didn't worship Buddha and no monument related to Buddha was built. Some Buddha disciples said their prayers secretly. There was hundreds of deva temples, and different sects. Bhaskar Varman, role model for the people, was fond of learning. Intellectuals from distant places visited his country. Bhaskar Varman wasn't a Buddhist but he respected sramaņas of learning.²

 

Rulers

1. 350-374 Pushya Varman
   
2. 374-398 Samudra Varman
   
3. 398-422 Bala Varman
4. 422-446 Kalyana Varman
5. 446-470 Ganapati Varman alias Ganendra Varman
6. 470-494 Mahendra Varman alias Surendra Varman
7. 494-518 Narayana Varman
   
8. 518-542 Bhuti Varman alias Mahabhuti Varman
9. 542-566 Chandramukha Varman
   
10. 566-590 Sthita Varman
    
11. 590-595 Susthita Varman
    
12. 595-600 Supratisthita Varman
    
13. 600-650 Bhaskar Varman
    
14. 650-655 Avanti Varman  

Decline and Succession

    The Varman dynasty's rule came to an end around 650 CE, following Bhaskar Varman's death. The reasons for the dynasty's decline remain unclear, but it is likely that internal succession disputes and external pressures contributed to its fall. The Varman dynasty was succeeded by the Salastambha dynasty, which continued to govern Kamarupa but lacked the same level of prominence and influence.

Legacy

    The Varman dynasty left an enduring legacy in the history of Assam and eastern India. Their rule laid the foundation for the political and cultural development of Kamarupa, establishing it as a significant regional power. The dynasty's patronage of Vedic and Hindu traditions, as well as their diplomatic engagements with major Indian powers, contributed to the integration of Kamarupa into the broader Indian cultural and political framework. The connection to Naraka and the divine claims of rulers like Bhaskar Varman continue to resonate in the cultural memory of the region.

    Bhaskar Varman’s reign marked the culmination of the Varman Dynasty’s contributions to the cultural and political development of ancient Kamrup. His alliance with Harshavardhana and diplomatic engagements with China elevated Kamarupa’s status, fostering a period of prosperity and influence. The dynasty’s patronage of Buddhism, as evidenced by Xuanzang’s accounts of Bhaskar Varman’s participation in religious events, also highlights its role in promoting religious and intellectual traditions. Although the Varman Dynasty declined after Bhaskar Varman’s death, his legacy endured in the historical memory of Kamrup as a ruler who expanded its influence and forged connections with major powers of the time.

See also

• Prayag Stone Pillar 
• Old Kamrupi language
• Kamrupi script
• Kamrupi literature
• Kamrup
• Kamrupi culture

Sources

1.  Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 37 (2005), Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti, p. 187 Pusyavarman became king of Kämarüpa with his seat of administration at Prägjyotisapura
2. Tsang, Hieun, Translated by Beal, Samual (1906),  Si-yu-ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, pp. 195-199  "KIA-MO-LU-PO  (Kâmarûpa).
   The country of Kâmarûpa is about 10,000 li in circuit. The capital town is about 30  li. The land lies low, but is rich, and is regularly cultivated. They cultivate the Panasa fruit and the Na-lo-ki-lo  (Nârîkêla) fruit. These trees, though numerous, are nevertheless much valued and esteemed. Water led from the river or from banked-up lakes (reservoirs) flows round the towns. The climate is soft and  temperate. The manners of the people simple and honest. The men are of small stature, and their complexion a dark yellow.  Their language differs a little from that of Mid-India. Their nature is very impetuous and wild;  their memories are retentive, and they are earnest in study. They adore and sacrifice to the Dêvas, and have no faith in Buddha ; hence  from the time when  Buddha appeared in the world even down to the present time there never as yet has been  built one sanghârâma as a place for the priests  to  assemble. Such disciples as there are of a pure faith,  say their prayers (repeat  the name of  Buddha) secretly, and that is all. There are as many as 100 Dêva temples, and different sectaries to the number of several myriads. The present king belongs to the old line (tso  yari) of Nârâyana-dêva. He is of the Brâhman caste. His name is Bhâskara- varman, his title Kumara (Keu-mo-lo). From the time that this family seized the  land and assumed the government till the present king, there have elapsed a thousand successions (generations).  The king is fond of learning, and the people are so likewise in imitation of him. Men of high talent from distant regions aspiring after office (?) visit his dominions as strangers. Though he has no faith in Buddha, yet he much respects Sramanas of learning. When he first  heard that a Sramana from China had come to Magadha to the Nâlanda sanghâ- râma from such  a  distance,  to  study with diligence the profound law of Buddha,  he  sent  a  message  of  invitation by those who reported it as often as three  times, but yet the  Sramana  (i.e., Hiuen  Tsiang) had not obeyed it. Then Silabhadra (Shi-lo-po-t'o-lo), master of sâstras,  said, " You desire to show your gratitude  to  Buddha ;  then  you should  propagate  the  true  law ;  this is your duty. You need not fear the long journey. Kumâra-râja's family respect the teaching of  the  heretics, and now he invites a Sramana to visit him.  This is good indeed !  We judge from this that he is changing his principles, and desires to acquire merit (or, from merit  acquired) to benefit others. You formerly conceived a great heart, and made a vow with yourself to travel alone through different lands regardless of life, to seek for the law for the good of the world.  Forgetful of your own country,  you should be ready to meet death ; indifferent to renown or failure, you should  labour to open the door for the spread of the holy doctrine, to lead onwards the crowds who are deceived by false teaching, to consider others first, yourself afterwards ; forgetful of renown, to think only of religion (enlarge the law)."
       On  this,  with no further excuses, he hastened in company with the messengers to present  himself to the king. Kumâra-râja said,  " Although I am without talents myself, I have always been fond of men of conspicuous learning. Hearing, then, of your fame and distinction,  I ventured to ask you here to visit me."
       He replied,  " I have only moderate wisdom, and I am confused to think that you should  have heard of my poor reputation."
       Kumâra-râja said,  " Well, indeed ! from regard for the law and love of learning to regard  oneself as of no account, and to travel abroad regardless of so great dangers, to wander through  strange countries !  This is the result of the transforming power of the king's government, and  the exceeding learning, as is reported, of the country. Now, through the kingdoms of India there  are many persons who sing about the victories of the Tsin king of the Mahâchîna country. I have  long heard of this. And is it true that this is your honourable birthplace ? "
       He said,  " It is so. These songs celebrate the virtues of my sovereign."
       He replied, "  I could not think that your worthy self was of this country. I have ever had an  esteem for its manners and laws. Long have I looked towards the east, but the intervening  mountains and rivers have prevented me from personally visiting it"
       In answer I said, " My great sovereign's holy qualities are far renowned, and the transforming  power of his virtue reaches to remote districts. People from strange countries pay respect at  the  door of  his palace, and call themselves his servants."
       Kumâra-râja  said, "  If his dominion is so great (covering thus his subjects), my heart strongly desires to bear my tribute to his court. But now Sîlâditya-râja is in the country of Kajûghira (Kie-chu-hoh-khi-lo), about to distribute large alms and to plant deeply the root of merit and wisdom. The Sramans and Brahmans of the five Indies, renowned for their learning, must needs come together. He has now sent for me. I pray you go with me!"
       On this they went together.
       On  the east this country is bounded by a line of hills, so that there is no great city (capital)  to  the kingdom.Their frontiers, therefore, are contiguous to the barbarians of the south-west (of  China). These tribes are, in fact, akin to those of the Man people in their customs. On inquiry I ascertained that after a two months' journey we reach the south-western frontiers of the province of Sz'chuen (Shuh). But the mountains and rivers present obstacles, and the pestilential  air, the poisonous vapours, the fatal snakes, the destructive vegetation, all these causes of death prevail.
       On the south-east of  this country herds of wild elephants roam about in numbers;therefore, in this district they use them principally in war. Going from this 1200 or 1300 li to the south, we come to the country of San-mo-ta-cha (Samatata). "
3. Acharyya, N. N. (Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti) (1985), Studies On The Graeco - Roman And Chinese Sources Of The History Of Ancient Assam in "Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 28", p. 112 "At the time of Hiuan-tsang's visit King Bhaskaravarman, was "a descendant of the God Narayana" ; he was "of the caste of the Brahman, as," and had the title of " Kumara." "Since the possession of the kingdom by his family up to his time, the succession of princes covers a space of a thousand generations" (Mem.II,77.) The evidence of his contemporary Bana (Harsacarita, chap. VII) confirms almost all these details. Finally we possess since a few years ago an inscription of King Bhaskaravarman (Nidhanpur plates,Ep.Ind.,XII,65), which takes back the genealogy up to King Bhagadatta, the famous adversary of the by a long list of ancestors. However, when he had business with others than Indians, the same prince boasted of another origin altogether. When the envoy of the T'ang dynasty, Li Yi-piao, paid him a visit during the course of his mission (643-646) the king in a private conversation told him: "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (Han-ti) flying through the air" (She-kia fang tche, ed. Tok. XXXV, 1, 94b, col. ult. As though he would show sympathy for China, he asked the envoy to get him a portrait of Lao-tseu and a Sanskrit translation of the Tao-to-king."

 

Bibliography

• Chanakya (321 BCE), Arthashastra
  
• Kalidasa (4th century CE), Raghuvaṃśam
  
• Banabhatta (620 - 640 CE), Harshacharita
• Tsang, Hieun, Translated by Beal, Samual (1906),  Si-yu-ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World
• Barua, Kanak Lal (1933), Early History of Kamarupa
  
• Acharyya, N. N. (Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti) (1985), Studies On The Graeco - Roman And Chinese Sources Of The History Of Ancient Assam in "Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 28

Kamrup Kingdom

Kamrup Kingdom, also called Pragjyotisha, was the first historical kingdom in Assam that existed between 350 and 1140 CE i.e for almost 800 years. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-day Guwahati in Kamrup and Tezpur in Central Assam it covered the entire Brahmaputra river valley and, at times, North Bengal and parts of Bangladesh.

Though the historical kingdom disappeared by 12th century to be replaced by smaller political entities, the notion of Kamarupa persisted and ancient and medieval chroniclers continued to call this region by this name. Coins of Alauddin Hussain Shah, who invaded the Kamata Kingdom in the late 15th century, called the region Kamru or Kamrud.

Sources

The region is mentioned as Pragjyotisha in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The periplus of the Eritherian Sea (1st century) and Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century) calls the region Kirrhadia after the Kirata population. The first epigraphic mention of Kamarupa comes from the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta from the 4th century, which marks the beginning of the historical period. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited the kingdom in the 7th century, then ruled by Bhaskar Varman. Inscriptions left by the rulers of Kamarupa, including Bhaskar Varman, at various places in Assam and present-day Bangladesh are important sources of information.

Boundaries

According to the 10th century Kalika Purana and the 7th century Xuanzang, the western boundary was the historical Karatoya river. The eastern border is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in Kalika Purana) near present-day Sadiya in the eastern most corner of Assam. The southern boundary was near the border between the Dhaka and Mymensingh districts in Bangladesh. Thus it spanned the entire Brahmaputra valley and at various times included present-day Bhutan and parts of Bangladesh. This is supported by the various epigraphic records found scattered over these regions.

State

The extent of state structures can be culled from the numerous copper plate grants left behind by the Kamarupa kings as well as accounts left by travelers such as those from Xuanzang.

Kings and courts: The king was considered to be of divine origin. Succession was primogeniture, but two major breaks resulted in different dynasties. In the second, the high officials of the state elected a king, Brahmapala, after the previous king died without leaving an heir. The royal court consisted of a Rajaguru, poets, learned men and physicians. Different epigraphic records mention different officials of the palace: Mahavaradhipati, Mahapratihara, Mahallakapraudhika, etc.
Council of Ministers: The king was advised by a council of ministers (Mantriparisada), and Xuanzang mentions a meeting Bhaskar Varman had with his ministers. According to the Kamauli grant, these positions were filled by Brahmanas and were hereditary. State functions were specialized and there were different groups of officers looking after different departments.
Revenue: Land revenue (kara) was collected by special tax-collectors from cultivators. Cultivators who had no proprietary rights on the lands they tilled paid uparikara. Duties (sulka) were collected by toll collectors (kaivarta) from merchants who plied keeled boats. The state maintained a monopoly on copper mines (kamalakara). The state maintained its stores and treasury via officials: Bhandagaradhikrita and Koshthagarika.
Grants: The king occasionally gave Brahmanas grants (brahmadeya), which consisted generally of villages, water resources, wastelands etc (agraharas). Such grants conferred on the donee the right to collect revenue and the right to be free of any regular tax himself and immunity from other harassments. Sometimes, the Brahmanas were relocated from North India, with a view to establish varnashramdharma. Nevertheless, the existence of donees indicate the existence of a feudal class. Grants made to temples and religious institutions were called dharmottara and devottara respectively.
Land survey: The land was surveyed and classified. Arable lands (kshetra) were held individually or by families, whereas wastelands (khila) and forests were held collectively. There were lands called bhucchidranyaya that were left unsurveyed by the state on which no tax was levied.
Administration: The entire kingdom was divided into a hierarchy of administrative divisions. From the highest to the lowest, they were bhukti, mandala, vishaya, pura (towns) and agrahara (collection of villages).
These units were administered by officials such as nyayakaranika, vyavaharika, kayastha etc., led by the adhikara. They dispensed judicial duties too, though the ultimate authority lay with the king. Law enforcement and punishments were made by officers called dandika, (magistrate) and dandapashika (one who executed the orders of a dandika).

Political Background

Kamarupa, first mentioned on Samudra Gupta's Allahabad rock pillar as a frontier kingdom, began as a subordinate but sovereign ally of the Gupta empire around present-day Guwahati in the 4th century. It finds mention along with Davaka, a kingdom to the east of Kamarupa in the Kapili river valley in present-day Nagaon district, but which is never mentioned again as an independent political entity in later historical records. Kamarupa, which was probably one among many such state structures, grew territorially to encompass the entire Brahmaputra valley and beyond. The kingdom was ruled by three major dynasties, all of which drew their lineage from the legendary king Naraka, who is said to have established his line by defeating the aboriginal king Ghatakasura of the Danava Dyanasty. 

Varman dynasty (350-650)

Pushya Varman (350-374) established the Varman dynasty, by fighting many enemies from within and without his kingdom; but his son Samudra Varman (374-398), named after Samudra Gupta, was accepted as an overlord by many local rulers. Nevertheless, subsequent kings continued their attempts to stabilize and expand the kingdom. Narayana Varman (494-518) and his son Bhuti Varman (518-542) offered the ashwamedha (horse sacrifice); and as the Nidhanpur inscription of Bhaskar Varman avers, these expansions included the region of Chandrapuri visaya, identified with present-day Sylhet division. Thus, the small but powerful kingdom that Pushya Varman established grew in fits and starts over many generations of kings and expanded to include adjoining possibly smaller kingdoms and parts of Bangladesh.

After the initial expansion till the beginning of Bhuti Varman's reign, the kingdom came under attack from Yashodharman (525-535) of Malwa, the first major assault from the west. Though it is unclear what the effect of this invasion was on the kingdom; that Bhuti Varman's grandson, Sthita Varman (566-590), enjoyed victories over the Gauda of Karnasuvarna and performed two aswamedha ceremonies suggests that the Kamarupa kingdom had recovered nearly in full. His son, Susthita Varman (590-600) came under the attack of Mahasenagupta of East Malwa. These back and forth invasions were a result of a system of alliances that pitted the Kamarupa kings (allied to the Maukharis) against the Gaur kings (allied with the East Malwa kings). Susthita Varman died as the Gaur invasion was on, and his two sons, Suprathisthita Varman and Bhaskar Varman fought against an elephant force and were captured and taken to Gaur. They were able to regain their kingdom due probably to a promise of allegiance. Suprathisthita Varman's regin is given as 595-600, a very short period, at the end of which he died without an heir.
Supratisthita Varman was succeeded by his brother, Bhaskar Varman (600-650), the most illustrious of the Varman kings who succeeded in turning his kingdom and invading the very kingdom that had taken him captive. Bhaskar Varman had become strong enough to offer his alliance with Harsh Vardhana just as the Thanesar king ascended the throne in 606 after the murder of his brother, the previous king, by Shashanka of Gaur. Harsha Vardhana finally took control over the kingless Maukhari kingdom and moved his capital to Kanauj. The alliance between Harsha Vardhana and Bhaskar Varman squeezed Shashanka from either side and reduced his kingdom, though it is unclear whether this alliance resulted in his complete defeat. Nevertheless, Bhaskar Varman did issue the Nidhanpur copper-plate inscription from his victory camp in the Gaur capital Karnasuvrna (present-day Murshidabad, West Bengal) to replace a grant issued earlier by Bhuti Varman for a settlement in the Sylhet region of present-day Bangladesh.
In about 643, the Xuanzang visited Bhaskar Varman's court. Xuangzang confirms that the western border of the Kamarupa kingdom was the Karatoya river. At the end of this visit, Bhaskar Varman accompanied Xuanzang to Kanauj, and participated in a religious assembly and a festival at Prayaga (Allahabad) with Harsha Vardhana, spending more than a year away from his own kingdom. It seems Bhaskar Varman maintained relations with China. He recounted to Xuanzang a Chinese song about the Jin Dynasty which became very popular in his kingdom. After the death of Harsha, he helped a mission from China led by Wang Hiuen-ts'oe according to a Chinese account. Bhaskar Varman, also called Kumar, or Shri Kumar, was a bachelor king and died without an heir.

Mlechchha dynasty (655-900CE)

After Bhaskar Varman's death without an heir, the kingdom fall into the hands of Salasthambha (655-670), an erstwhile local governor and a member of an aboriginal group called Mlechchha (or Mech), after a period of civil and political strife. Though this dynasty too claims its lineage from the Naraka Dynasty, it had no dynastic relationship with the previous Varman Dynasty. The capital of this dynasty was Haruppeshvara, now identified with modern Dah Parbatiya near Tezpur. The kingdom took on feudal characteristics with political power shared between the king and second and third tier rulers called mahasamanta and samanta who enjoyed considerable autonomy. The last ruler in this line was Tyāga Singha (890-900). 

Pala dynasty (900-1140) 

After the death of Tyāgasimha without an heir, a member of the Bhauma family, Brahmapala (900-920)), was elected as king by the ruling chieftains, just as Gopala of the Pala dynasty of Bengal was elected. The original capital of this dynasty was Hadapeshvara, and was shifted to Durjaya built by Ratnapala, near modern Guwahati. The greatest of the Pala kings, Dharmapala had his capital at Kamarupanagara, now identified with North Guwahati. The last Pala king was Jayapala (1075-1100). Around this time, Kamarupa was attacked and the western portion was conquered by the Pala king of Gaur Ramapala.

Non-dynastic independent Kings

The Gaur king could not hold Kamarupa for long, and Timgyadeva (1110-1126) ruled Kamarupa independently for sometime. A minister of the Gaur king Kumarapala (the son of Ramapala) began an expedition against Timgyadeva and installed himself as a ruler at Hamshkonchi in the Kamrup region. Though he maintained friendly relationships with Kumarapala, he called styled himself after the Kamarupa kings issuing grants under the elephant seal of erstwhile Kamarupa kings and assuming the title of Maharajadhiraja. The period saw a waning of the Kamarupa kingdom, and in 1205 the Afghan Muhammad i Bakhtiyar passed through Kamarupa against Tibet which ended in a disaster. Mughisuddin Yuzbak of the Mameluk rulers of Bengal attacked and defeated an unknown ruler of Kamarupa in 1257. But Yuzbak could not hold on to the capital as he was weakened by the Monsoon rains that led to his defeat and death by the local population.

 

Ancient caves discovered at Gauhati

A rock cut cave with an array of historical findings has been discovered in the Kalipur, Umachal Area of Gauhati. The cave is in it’s interior measuring 6.26x5.02 metres. 

The cave was discovered by some children who were playing near by the area. The cave was covered by thick jungle. After cleaning bushes, the century old cave came to the sight of people.

Visiting the cave site, Director of the Archaeology Department informed TSI – “The rock inscription dated back to 400-500 AD. It is thought that the inscription of the cave was done during the tenure of King Mahendra Varman (470 - 494 A.D) of Kamarupa Kingdom (3 - 12 A.D). Assam Archaeology Department will take necessary action to protect this cave.

An official of State Archaeology Department said that the cave was the temple of Balabhadra swami. According to her two pieces of a broken stone bowl measuring 16.5 cm in diameter has been found inside the cave. Official also informed that a floral carving measuring 76x73x16 cm has also been seen drawn on the rock surface. 

The Kalipur and Umachal area of greater Gauhati was the epicenter of Tantric Practices from very ancient time. Several historical monuments have been discovered in this locality.